Environmental factors have a quantitative expression (Figure 6). In relation to each factor, one can distinguish optimum zone (zone of normal life activity), pessimum zone(zone of oppression) and endurance limits body. Optimum is the amount of environmental factor at which the intensity of vital activity of organisms is maximum. In the pessimum zone, the vital activity of organisms is suppressed. Beyond the limits of endurance, the existence of an organism is impossible. There are lower and upper limits of endurance.

Figure 6: Dependence of the action of an environmental factor on its action

The ability of living organisms to tolerate quantitative fluctuations in the action of an environmental factor V to one degree or another is called ecological valence (tolerance, stability, plasticity). Species with a wide tolerance zone are called eurybiont, with a narrow - stenobiont (Figure 7 and Figure 8).

Figure 7: Ecological valency (plasticity) of species:

1- eurybiont; 2 - stenobiont

Figure 8: Ecological valence (plasticity) of species

(according to Yu. Odum)

Organisms that tolerate significant temperature fluctuations are called eurythermal, while those adapted to a narrow temperature range are called stenothermic. In the same way, in relation to pressure, eury- and stenobate organisms are distinguished, in relation to the degree of salinity of the environment - eury - and stenohaline, etc.

The environmental valences of individuals do not coincide. Therefore, the ecological valence of a species is broader than the ecological valence of each individual individual.

The ecological valence of a species to different environmental factors can differ significantly. The set of environmental valences in relation to various environmental factors is ecological spectrum kind.

An ecological factor, the quantitative value of which goes beyond the endurance of the species, is called limiting (limiting) factor. This factor will limit the spread of the species even if all other factors are favorable. Limiting factors determine the geographical range of the species. Human knowledge of the limiting factors for a particular type of organism allows, by changing environmental conditions, to either suppress or stimulate its development.

We can highlight the main patterns of action of environmental factors:

law of relativity of environmental factors - the direction and intensity of the action of an environmental factor depend on the quantities in which it is taken and in combination with what other factors it acts. There are no absolutely beneficial or harmful environmental factors: it’s all a matter of quantity. For example, if the ambient temperature is too low or too high, i.e. goes beyond the endurance of living organisms, this is bad for them. Only optimal values ​​are favorable. At the same time, environmental factors cannot be considered in isolation from each other. For example, if the body experiences a shortage of water, then it is more difficult for it to tolerate high temperatures;

law of relative replaceability and absolute irreplaceability of environmental factors - the absolute absence of any of the mandatory conditions of life cannot be replaced by other environmental factors, but the deficiency or excess of some environmental factors can be compensated by the action of other environmental factors. For example, the complete (absolute) absence of water cannot be compensated for by other environmental factors. However, if other environmental factors are at their optimum, then it is easier to tolerate a lack of water than when other factors are in deficiency or excess.

Organisms are always affected by a complex of environmental factors. The most favorable intensity of the environmental factor for the body is called optimal, or optimum. Deviation from the optimal action of the factor leads to inhibition of the body’s vital functions. The limit beyond which the existence of an organism is impossible is called endurance limit. For any organism and species as a whole, there is a limit for each environmental factor. An environmental factor that goes beyond the limits of the body's endurance is called limiting. It has upper and lower limits.

The optimum reflects the characteristics of the living conditions of various species. The wider the endurance limit, the more flexible the body. Moreover, the limit of endurance in relation to various environmental factors varies among organisms. Narrowly adapted species are less plastic and have a small limit of endurance; widely adapted species are more plastic, and they have a wide range of resistance to fluctuations in environmental factors.

The interaction of various environmental factors is that changes in the intensity of one can reduce the endurance limit to another factor or, conversely, increase it.

For example, optimal temperature increases tolerance to lack of moisture and food.

The set of environmental factors (abiotic and biotic) necessary for the existence of a species is called ecological niche, which characterizes the way of life of an organism, its living conditions and nutrition.

RELATIONSHIPS OF ORGANISMS

Biotic factors manifest themselves in the relationships between organisms living together and are of a diverse nature.

Neutralism-- independent relationships between different species living together in the same territory (for example, squirrel and moose).

Competition-- a type of relationship that occurs between two species with similar needs living in the same territory.

The presence of one species or organism reduces food resources and reduces the distribution area of ​​another.

For example, oppression of plants of the lower tier in the forest, competition between different species of rodents living in the same field, meadow, predators of the same forest, etc. As a result, a weaker competitor dies or is replaced by a stronger one.

Predation-- interaction of individuals in which one of them experiences a negative impact from the other. Predators, feeding, destroy their prey.

The relationship between predator and prey developed during the process of evolution. Predators act as natural regulators of the prey population. An increase in the number of predators leads to a decrease in the population of the prey. In turn, a drop in prey numbers leads to a decrease in predators who lack food. An example is the relationship between a hare and a wolf.

Symbiosis- the coexistence of species that derive mutual benefit from such cohabitation. An example of symbiosis is mycorrhiza - the connection of plant roots and fungal hyphae, the cohabitation of nitrogen-fixing bacteria and legumes, the relationship between anemone and hermit crab.

Freeloading-- relationships between organisms when one species benefits from the presence of another, although the latter does not care about such presence.

For example, hyenas pick up the remains of prey not eaten by large predators, pilot fish follow sharks and dolphins, feeding on leftover food.

In some cases, the body or structures of one species may serve as habitat or protection for another. This kind of cohabitation is called lodger

For example, coral reefs support a large number of marine organisms. Small species of marine life inhabit the body cavity of the echinoderm holothurian. Epiphytic plants they settle on trees, which serve as their attachment point, and they feed by photosynthesis. These are mosses, lichens, and some flowering plants.

Thus, in a biocenosis, various forms of relationships are observed between organisms, which are built on food, spatial and other types of interaction, regulate population numbers and determine the stability of the community.

A certain pressure in the environment” How do you understand this statement?

Task No. 6. Currently, each inhabitant of our planet produces on average about 1 ton of garbage per year (MSW - solid household waste), and this does not count millions of worn-out and broken cars. There are three main options for handling solid waste: 1 – burial, incineration, sorting and recycling. Which of these methods is the most environmentally friendly? Provide evidence.

Choose one correct answer

Unified natural complexes formed by organisms and habitats

1) ecosystems

2) biosphere

3) populations

4) biomass

A branch of ecology that studies the individual connections of individual organisms (species, individuals) with the environment

1) autecology

2) biochemistry

3) geoecology

4) synecology

5) demecology

3. A system of a higher order, covering all phenomena of life on our planet

1) biosphere

2) atmosphere

3) stratosphere

4) apobiosphere

5) aerobiosphere

The most difficult habitat

1) ground-air

3) atmospheric

4) social environment

5) ecological environment

5. All possible forms of influence of living organisms on each other and on the environment are:

1) biotic factors

2) biological factors

3) symbiotic factors

4) edaphic factors

5) extreme factors

Unsustainable ecosystem with artificially created and depleted species producing agricultural products

1) agorocenosis

2) biogeocenosis

3) agrobiogeocenosis

4) biocenosis

5) agroforestry complex

7. The stability of biogeocenosis is mainly determined by:

1) consumers

2) producers - photosynthetics

3) great species diversity

4) decomposers

5) chemosynthetic producers

Ecosystem producers - organisms that synthesize organic substances from inorganic substances are called

1) heterotrophs

2) autotrophs

3) symbionts

4) anaerobic bacteria

5) consumers

Global environmental disasters in the biosphere have arisen

1) before the appearance of man

2) this period is not precisely defined

3) after the appearance of man

4) during the period of the emergence of the biosphere

5) after the Ice Age

Succession is characterized

1) change of ecosystem biotope

4) seasonal change of communities

5) change of phytocenosis

When exposed to a low-intensity environmental factor, most of the individuals in the population

1) adapts

2) is in the process of compensation

3) is in the stage of decompensation

4) dies

5) actively reproduces

Endemic diseases include

1) fluorosis

3) ascariasis

4) fascioliasis

5) tuberculosis

An environmental factor that goes beyond endurance limits is called

1) stimulating

2) abiotic

3) limiting

4) anthropogenic

5) biotic

2. General patterns of environmental impact

factors on the body. Optimum rule.

In all the diversity of influencing environmental factors and adaptive reactions to their influence on the part of organisms, a number of general patterns can be identified.

The effect of an environmental factor on the body depends not only on the nature, but also on the intensity of its impact, i.e. on the amount of environmental factor perceived by the body.

In the process of evolution, all organisms have developed adaptations to perceive natural environmental factors in certain quantities necessary for their normal functioning, while a decrease or increase in this amount reduces their vital activity, and when a maximum or minimum is reached, the possibility of the existence of organisms is completely excluded.

Figure 1 shows a diagram of the effect of an environmental factor on the body.

The abscissa axis is plotted amount of environmental factor (for example, temperature, illumination, humidity, salinity, etc.), and along the ordinate axis - the intensity of the body's reaction to an environmental factor, i.e. intensity of the body's vital activity (for example, the intensity of a particular physiological process - photosynthesis, respiration, growth, etc.; morphological characteristics - the size of the organism or its organs; or the number of individuals per unit area, etc.).

As can be seen from Fig. 1, curve 1, as the amount of environmental factor increases, the intensity of the organism’s vital activity increases to a certain level, and then decreases again.

The amount of environmental factor is determined mainly by three values ​​​​presented in the diagram three cardinal points:

(1) - minimum point; (2) - optimum point; (3) - maximum point.

Minimum point (1) - corresponds to an amount of environmental factor that is not yet sufficient for the existence of the organism in the given conditions.

Optimum point (2) - corresponds to the amount of environmental factor at which the intensity of the organism’s vital activity reaches the maximum possible values.

Maximum point (3) - corresponds to the maximum amount of environmental factor at which the intensity of the organism’s vital activity is zero.

Scheme of the action of an environmental factor on the life activity of organisms:

1, 2. 3 - points of minimum, optimum and maximum, respectively;

I, II, III-zones of pessimum, norm and optimum, respectively.

II, III – zone of normal life activity

Fig.1. Scheme of the action of an environmental factor on the body.

Optimum zone is called the zone immediately adjacent to the optimum point (2).

In the optimum zone, the amount of environmental factor fully corresponds to the needs of the body and provides the most favorable conditions for its life, i.e. is optimal.

In the optimum zone, the body is maximally adapted to the action of the environmental factor, therefore, in this zone, adaptive mechanisms are turned off, and energy is spent only on fundamental life processes.

Normal zones the zones immediately adjacent to the optimum zone are called. There are two such zones, corresponding to the deviation of the environmental factor values ​​from the optimum towards a deficiency or its excess.

The normal zone corresponds to the amount of environmental factor in which all vital processes proceed normally, but additional energy costs are required to maintain them at this level.

This is explained by the fact that when the factor values ​​go beyond the optimum, adaptive mechanisms are activated, the functioning of which is associated with certain energy expenditures, and the further the factor value deviates from the optimum, the more energy is spent on adaptation (curve 2).

The optimum zone and the normal zone are often called zone of normal functioning of the body.

The zones immediately adjacent to the zone of normal life activity are called zones of pessimism or zones of oppression.

Pessimum zones correspond to the amount of environmental factor that reduces the effectiveness of adaptive mechanisms and, as a result, disrupts the vital functions of the body.

In ecology, environmental conditions in which any factor (or set of factors) goes beyond the zone of normal life activity and has a depressing effect are often called extreme.

Lower and upper limits of endurance The minimum and maximum values ​​of an environmental factor are called at which the life of organisms is still possible.

Endurance zone is the range of values ​​of an environmental factor beyond which the life of organisms becomes impossible.

Beyond endurance are lethal zones, which correspond to such an amount of environmental factor that the action of all adaptive mechanisms is ineffective and life becomes impossible.

For example, the optimal temperature for humans is 36.6 0 C; boundaries of the zone of normal life activity - 36.4-37.0 0 C; pessimum zones are determined by values ​​of 36.4 - 34.5 0 C and 37.0 - 42.0 0 C; outside the specified values ​​in the lethal zones (34.5 0 C and 42.0 0 C), human death occurs.

A graph of the dependence of the vital activity of individuals of a given species on the intensity of an environmental factor can be obtained experimentally or as a result of observations in nature.

1) For illustration, we can cite data from experiments with animals placed in a thermogradient. The device is a tube, one end of which is placed in ice and the other is immersed in a water bath, resulting in a temperature gradient inside the tube.

Insects or other small animals are placed in the tube, after which the pattern of their distribution throughout the tube is studied. It turns out that most insects concentrate on one area.

When depicted graphically, this pattern will have the form of a parabola, where the area of ​​the highest concentration of insects corresponds to the optimum zone.

2) Place animals in conditions of different temperatures and calculate the percentage of their survival over a certain period of time. Based on the results of the experiment, the curve is crossed out, and a central zone is identified on it, which corresponds to the temperature optimum zone.

3) For each of us, a fairly ordinary fact of life, namely indoor plants and their care, can serve as a good example. Everyone knows that they develop best if the amount of watering them is of a certain nature: both a break in watering and an excessive amount of water leads to inhibition of indoor plants, and sometimes to death.

Similar data were obtained on illumination and temperature for indoor plants and for animals, plants and microorganisms in the “wild nature”.

It should be noted that the concept of optimum is not applicable to some factors, for example, ionizing radiation, since at any value above the natural background radiation is unfavorable for the body.

General patterns of the impact of environmental factors on the body.

1) at certain values ​​of the environmental factor, conditions are created that are most favorable for the life of organisms; these conditions are called optimal, and the corresponding area on the scale of factor values ​​is optimum zone;

2) the more the factor values ​​deviate from the optimal ones, the more the vital activity of organisms is inhibited; In this regard, it stands out their zone normal life activity;

3) the range of values ​​of the environmental factor, beyond which the life activity of organisms becomes impossible, is called endurance zone; differentiate lower and upper endurance limits.

The patterns of influence of environmental factors on living organisms and the nature of the latter’s responses discussed above are known as "optimum rule".

Ecological valence (or environmental tolerance) is the ability of organisms to adapt to a particular range of fluctuations in environmental factors.

The wider the range of fluctuations of the environmental factor within which a given organism can exist, the greater its environmental valence (or environmental tolerance), the wider the zone of its endurance.

To express the relative degree of environmental valency (tolerance), terms with prefixes are used "evry" and "steno".

Organisms that tolerate large deviations of the factor from optimal values ​​are designated by a term containing the name of the factor with the prefix evry- (from the Greek “wide”).

Organisms that can exist with small deviations of the factor from the optimal value are designated by a term containing the name of the factor with the prefix steno- (from the Greek “narrow”).

This can be depicted schematically as follows (Fig. 2):

Fig.2. Forms of organisms in relation to range of vibrations

environmental factor.

For example, eurythermic and stenothermic forms are organisms that are respectively resistant and unstable to temperature fluctuations.

Examples eurythermic animals and plants:

- Arctic foxes in the tundra can tolerate air temperature fluctuations in the range of about 85 0 C (from +30 0 From to -55 0 WITH);

- carp in fresh waters tolerate temperature fluctuations from 0 0 up to 35 0 WITH;

- plants of temperate climate zones tolerate a range of temperature changes of about 60 in the active state 0 C, and in a state of stupor even up to 90 0 C. So, larch in Yakutia can withstand frosts down to -70 0 WITH.

Examples stenothermic animals and plants:

- warm-water crustaceans can withstand changes in water temperature in the range of no more than 6 0 C (from +23 0 From to 29 0 WITH);

- some species of Antarctic fish are adapted to low temperatures (from -2 0 From to +2 0 WITH); as the temperature rises, they stop moving, falling into thermal stupor;

- tropical forest plants can withstand narrow temperature ranges, for them the temperature is about +5 0 C - +8 0 C can already be disastrous.

Eury- and stenohygrid The forms of organisms differ in their response to fluctuations in humidity.

Eury- and stenohaline The forms of organisms differ in their response to fluctuations in water salinity.

Eury- and stenoxybiont The forms of organisms differ in their reaction to the oxygen content in water.

If we mean the resistance of organisms to changes in a complex of factors, then we talk about eurybiont and stenobiont forms of organisms .

- man in relation to abiotic environmental factors –eurybiont (technology), however, as a biological species in relation to temperature, it is a stenothermic organism.

Eurybiontism and stenobiontism characterize various types of adaptation of organisms to survival.

Species that have existed for a long time under significant fluctuations in environmental factors acquire increased ecological valence and become eurybiont , i.e. species with a wide range of tolerance, while species developing in relatively stable conditions lose ecological valency and develop traits stenobiontism. Generally, eurybiontism promotes the wide distribution of organisms in nature, and stenobiontism limits their distribution area.

Organisms may also differ in the position of the optimum on the scale of quantitative changes in the factor (Fig. 3).

Fig.3. Forms of organisms that differ in the position of the optimum.

Organisms adapted to high doses of a given environmental factor are designated by the term ending -Phil (from Greek “love”), for example:

- thermophiles - thermophilic organisms;

- oxyphiles - demanding high oxygen content;

- hygrophiles - inhabitants of places with high humidity.

Organisms living in opposite conditions are designated by a term ending -phob (from the Greek “fear”), for example:

- halophobes - inhabitants of fresh water bodies that cannot tolerate salt water;

- chionophobes - organisms that avoid deep snow.

Information about the optimal values ​​of individual environmental factors and the range of their tolerated fluctuations quite fully characterizes the body’s attitude towards each factor studied.

However, it should be borne in mind that the categories considered give only a general idea of ​​the body’s response to the influence of individual factors. This is important for the general ecological characteristics of the species and is useful in solving a number of applied problems of ecology (for example, the problem of acclimatization of the species in new conditions), but does not determine the full extent of the interaction of the species with environmental conditions in a complex natural environment.

1. General Provisions. The environment is everything that surrounds the organism, i.e.

this is that part of nature with which the organism is in direct or indirect interactions. Under environment We understand the complex of environmental conditions that affect the life of organisms. The complex of conditions consists of various elements - environmental factors environmental factors.

The influence of environmental factors affects all life processes of organisms and, above all, their metabolism. Adaptations of organisms to their environment are called adaptations.

2. The ability to adapt is one of the main properties of life in general, since it provides the very possibility of its existence, the ability of organisms to survive and reproduce. Classification of environmental factors

. Environmental factors have different natures and specific actions. By their nature, they are divided into two large groups: abiotic and biotic. If we divide factors according to the reasons for their occurrence, then they can be divided into natural (natural) and anthropogenic.

Anthropogenic factors can also be abiotic and biotic. Abiotic factors

(or physicochemical factors) - temperature, light, pH of the environment, salinity, radioactive radiation, pressure, air humidity, wind, currents. These are all properties of inanimate nature that directly or indirectly affect living organisms. Biotic factors

- these are forms of influence of living beings on each other. The surrounding organic world is an integral part of the environment of every living creature. Mutual connections between organisms are the basis for the existence of populations and biocenoses.

Anthropogenic factors

- these are forms of human action that lead to changes in nature as the habitat of other species or directly affect their lives.

The action of environmental factors can lead to:

3. – to the elimination of species from biotopes (change of biotope, territory, shift in population range; example: bird migration);.– to changes in fertility (population density, reproductive peaks) and mortality (death with rapid and sharp changes in environmental conditions);

– to phenotypic variability and adaptation: modification variability - adaptive modifications, winter and summer hibernation, photoperiodic reactions, etc. the effect of a factor is determined by the dosage of this factor. Very often, environmental factors, especially abiotic ones, are tolerated by the body only within certain limits. The effect of a factor is most effective at a certain optimal value for a given organism. The range of action of an environmental factor is limited by the corresponding extreme threshold values ​​(minimum and maximum points) of a given factor at which the existence of an organism is possible. The maximum and minimum tolerable values ​​of the factor are the critical points beyond which death occurs. The endurance limits between critical points are called environmental valency or tolerance

living beings in relation to a specific environmental factor. The distribution of population density follows a normal distribution. The closer the factor value is to the average value, which is called the ecological optimum of the species for this parameter, the higher the population density. This law of distribution of population density, and therefore vital activity, is called the general law of biological persistence. The range of beneficial effects of a factor on organisms of a given species is called optimum zone (or comfort zone). The points of optimum, minimum and maximum constitute three cardinal points that determine the possibility of the body’s reaction to a given factor. The greater the deviation from the optimum, the more pronounced the inhibitory effect of this factor on the body. This range of factor values ​​is called pessimum zone (or zone of oppression). The considered patterns of the influence of a factor on the body are known as .

optimum rule Other patterns have been established that characterize the interaction of the organism and the environment., according to which plant growth is limited by the lack of a single biogenic element, the concentration of which is at a minimum. If other elements are contained in sufficient quantities, and the concentration of this single element drops below normal, the plant will die. Such elements are called limiting factors. So, the existence and endurance of an organism are determined by the weakest link in the complex of its environmental needs. Or the relative effect of a factor on the body is greater, the more this factor approaches the minimum compared to others. The size of the harvest is determined by the presence in the soil of that nutrient element, the need for which is least satisfied, i.e. This element is in minimal quantity. As its content increases, the yield will increase until another element is at a minimum.

Later, the law of the minimum began to be interpreted more broadly, and currently they talk about limiting environmental factors. An environmental factor plays a limiting role in the case when it is absent or is below a critical level, or exceeds the maximum tolerable limit. In other words, this factor determines the ability of the organism to attempt to invade a particular environment. The same factors can be either limiting or not. An example with light: for most plants it is a necessary factor as a supplier of energy for photosynthesis, while for fungi or deep-sea and soil animals this factor is not necessary.

Phosphates in seawater are a limiting factor in plankton development. Oxygen in soil is not a limiting factor, but in water it is a limiting factor.

A corollary from Liebig's law: a deficiency or excessive abundance of any limiting factor can be compensated by another factor that changes the body's attitude towards the limiting factor. However, not only those factors that are at a minimum are of limiting importance. The idea of ​​the limiting influence of the maximum value of a factor on a par with the minimum was first expressed in 1913 by the American zoologist V. Shelford. According to the formulated Shelford's law of tolerance the existence of a species is determined by both a deficiency and an excess of any of the factors having a level close to the limit of tolerance by a given organism..

4. Frequency of environmental factors.

The action of a factor can be: 1) regularly periodic, changing the strength of the impact in connection with the time of day, season of the year or the rhythm of ebb and flow in the ocean; 2) irregular, without a clear periodicity, for example, catastrophic phenomena - storms, showers, tornadoes, etc.; 3) directed over certain periods of time, for example, global cooling, or overgrowing of water bodies.

Organisms always adapt to the whole complex of conditions, and not to any one factor. But in the complex action of the environment, the importance of individual factors is unequal. Factors can be leading (main) and secondary. The leading factors differ for different organisms, even if they live in the same place. They also differ for one organism at different periods of its life. Thus, for early spring plants the leading factor is light, and after flowering - moisture and sufficient nutrients.

Primary periodic factors (daily, lunar, seasonal, annual) – adaptation of organisms takes place, rooted in the hereditary basis (gene pool), since this periodicity existed before the appearance of life on Earth. Climatic zonation, temperature, ebb and flow, illumination. It is with primary periodic factors that climate zones are associated, which determine the distribution of species on Earth.

5 . Secondary periodic factors. Factors resulting from changes in primary factors (temperature - humidity, temperature - salinity, temperature - time of day).

1)Abiotic factors..

Depends on the main factors: latitude and position of the continents. Climatic zoning led to the formation of biogeographic zones and belts (tundra zone, steppe zone, taiga zone, deciduous forest zone, desert and savannah zone, subtropical forest zone, tropical forest zone). The ocean is divided into Arctic-Antarctic, boreal, subtropical and tropical-equatorial zones. There are many secondary factors. For example, monsoon climate zones that form a unique flora and fauna. Latitude has the greatest effect on temperature. The position of the continents is the reason for the dryness or humidity of the climate. The internal regions are drier than the peripheral ones, which greatly influences the differentiation of animals and plants on the continents. Wind regime (an integral part of the climatic factor) plays an extremely important role in the formation of life forms of plants.

The most important climatic factors: temperature, humidity, light. Temperature.

All living things are in the temperature range - from 0 0 to 50 0 C. These are lethal temperatures. Exceptions. Space cold. Eurythermic 1 and stenothermic organisms. Cold-loving stenothermic and heat-loving stenothermic.

The abyssal environment (0˚) is the most constant environment. Biogeographical zonation (arctic, boreal, subtropical and tropical). Poikilothermic organisms are cold-water organisms with variable temperatures. The body temperature approaches the ambient temperature.

Homeothermic - warm-blooded organisms with a relatively constant internal temperature. These organisms have great advantages in using the environment. Humidity.

2)Water in the soil and water in the air are factors of great importance in the life of the organic world. Hydrobionts (aquatic) - live only in water.

3)Hydrophiles (hydrophytes) – very humid environments (frogs, earthworms)..

6. Anthropogenic factors can also be abiotic and biotic. Temperature, pressure, chemical composition (oxygen, salinity). According to the degree of salt concentration in the aquatic environment, organisms are: freshwater, saltwater, marine euryhaline and stenohaline (i.e. living in conditions of a wide and narrow range of salinity, respectively). Based on the temperature factor, organisms are divided into cold-water and warm-water, as well as a group of cosmopolitans. Based on their lifestyle in the aquatic environment (depth, pressure), organisms are divided into planktonic, benthic, deep-sea and shallow-sea.

.

7. (or physicochemical factors) - temperature, light, pH of the environment, salinity, radioactive radiation, pressure, air humidity, wind, currents. These are all properties of inanimate nature that directly or indirectly affect living organisms. These are factors that control the relationships of organisms in populations or communities. There are two main types of such relationships:

– intraspecific – population and interpopulation (demographic, ethological);

.Although humans influence living nature through changes in abiotic factors and biotic relationships of species, human activity on the planet is of particular importance. The main methods of anthropogenic influence are: importation of plants and animals, reduction of habitats and destruction of species, direct impact on vegetation cover, plowing of land, cutting and burning of forests, grazing of domestic animals, mowing, drainage, irrigation and watering, atmospheric pollution, creation of ruderal habitats (garbage dumps, wastelands) and dumps, creation of cultural phytocenoses. To this should be added various forms of crop and livestock farming activities, measures for plant protection, protection of rare and exotic species, animal hunting, their acclimatization, etc. The influence of the anthropogenic factor has been constantly increasing since the appearance of man on Earth. Currently, the fate of the living surface of our planet and all types of organisms is in the hands of human society and depends on the anthropogenic impact on nature. 2.Noise pollution. Noise protection. (Noise (acoustic), pollution English Noise pollution German Lärm ) - annoying noise anthropogenic origin, disrupting the life of living organisms and humans. Annoying noises also exist in nature (abiotic and biotic), but it is incorrect to consider them pollution, since living organisms.

have adapted

In cities, noise pollution in residential areas can be greatly increased by poor urban planning (e.g. airport in the city).

In addition to transport (60÷80% of noise pollution), other important sources of noise pollution in cities are industrial enterprises, construction and repair work, car alarms, barking dogs, noisy people, etc.

With the advent of the post-industrial era, more and more sources of noise pollution (as well as electromagnetic) also appears inside a person’s home.

The source of this noise is household and office equipment.

More than half of the population of Western Europe lives in areas where the noise level is 55÷70 dB.

Noise protection
Like all other types of anthropogenic impacts, the problem of noise pollution is international in nature. The World Health Organization, taking into account the global nature of environmental noise pollution, has developed a long-term program to reduce noise in cities and towns around the world.
In Russia, protection from noise exposure is regulated by the Law of the Russian Federation “On Environmental Protection” (2002) (Article 55), as well as government regulations on measures to reduce noise at industrial enterprises, in cities and other populated areas.
Technical and technological measures come down to noise protection, which is understood as comprehensive technical measures to reduce noise in production (installation of sound-insulating casings of machines, sound absorption, etc.), in transport (emission mufflers, replacement of shoe brakes with disc brakes, noise-absorbing asphalt, etc.). ).
At the urban planning level, protection from noise exposure can be achieved by the following measures (Shvetsov, 1994):
- zoning with removal of noise sources outside the building;
- organizing a transport network that excludes the passage of noisy highways through residential areas;
- removal of noise sources and arrangement of protective zones around and along noise sources and organization of green spaces;
- laying highways in tunnels, constructing noise-protective embankments and other noise-absorbing obstacles along the paths of noise propagation (screens, excavations, forging holes);
Architectural and planning measures provide for the creation of noise-protective buildings, i.e., buildings that provide the premises with normal acoustic conditions with the help of structural, engineering and other measures (sealing windows, double doors with a vestibule, cladding walls with sound-absorbing materials, etc.).
A certain contribution to protecting the environment from noise impacts is made by the prohibition of sound signals from vehicles, flights over the city, restriction (or prohibition) of aircraft takeoffs and landings at night, and other organizations.
these measures.

However, these measures are unlikely to give the desired environmental effect if the main thing is not understood: protection from noise exposure is not only a technical problem, but also an asocial one. It is necessary to cultivate a sound culture (Bon-Edarenko, 1985) and consciously prevent actions that would contribute to an increase in noise pollution of the environment.

Law of limiting factors

In the total pressure of the environment, factors are identified that most strongly limit the success of the life of organisms. Such factors are called limiting or limiting. In its simplest form, the fundamental law of the minimum, formulated by J. Liebig in 1840, concerns the successful growth and productivity of crops that depend on a substance that is at a minimum compared to other necessary agrochemicals. Later (in 1909), the law of the minimum was interpreted by F. Blackman more broadly, as the action of any ecological factor that is at a minimum: environmental factors that have the worst significance in specific conditions especially limit the possibility of the existence of a species in these conditions in spite of and in spite of optimal combination of other hotel conditions.

In addition to the minimum, V. Shelford’s law also takes into account the maximum environmental factor: the limiting factor can be both the minimum and the maximum environmental impact.

The value of the concept of limiting factors is that it provides a starting point for exploring complex situations. It is possible to identify probable weak links in the environment that may turn out to be critical or limiting.

Identifying limiting factors is the key to controlling the life activity of organisms. For example, in agroecosystems on highly acidic soils, wheat yield can be increased by applying various agronomic interventions, but the best effect is obtained only as a result of liming, which will remove the limiting effect of acidity. To successfully apply the law of limiting factors in practice, two principles must be observed. The first is restrictive, that is, the law is strictly applicable only under stationary conditions, when the inflow and outflow of energy and substances are balanced. The second takes into account the interaction of factors and the adaptability of organisms. For example, some plants need less zinc if they are grown in shade rather than full sun.

The ecological significance of individual factors for various groups and species of organisms is extremely diverse and requires proper consideration.

The world of sounds is an integral part of the habitat of humans, many animals, and is not indifferent to some plants.

The rustling of leaves, the splash of waves, the sound of rain, the singing of birds - all this is familiar to humans. Meanwhile, various and multi-scale processes of technogenesis have significantly changed and are changing the natural acoustic field of the biosphere, which is manifested in noise pollution of the natural environment, which has become a serious factor of negative impact. According to prevailing ideas, noise pollution is one of the forms of physical (wave) pollution of the environment, to which adaptation of organisms is not possible.

According to the World Health Organization, the nervous system's response to noise begins at 40 dB, and at 70 dB or more, significant disturbances are possible. There are also functional disorders in the body, manifested in changes in the activity of the brain and central nervous system, and increased blood pressure. An acceptable level of noise is considered to be such that it does not disturb sound comfort, does not cause unpleasant sensations, and with prolonged exposure there are no changes in a set of physiological indicators.

Noise standards are brought into compliance with the Sanitary Standards for Permissible Noise.