phonetic adaptation. Features of formal adaptation of foreign words at the present stage

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Borisova Olga Sergeevna

ADAPTATION OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE VOCABULARY

IN THE SYSTEM OF LANGUAGE AND PERCEPTION OF SPEAKERS

(BY THE MATERIAL OF THE VOCABULARY OF THE RUSSIAN AND CHINESE LANGUAGES OF THE END XX - EARLY XXI CENTURIES.)

Specialty 10.02.19 - Theory of Language

abstract

dissertations for a degree

candidate of philological sciences

Kemerovo - 2009

The work was carried out at the Department of the Russian Language of the State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Biysk Pedagogical State University named after V.M. Shukshin

Leading organization: Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical University

The defense will take place on June 30, 2009 at 12.00 at a meeting of the Dissertation Council D212.088.01 at the Kemerovo State University at the address: 650043, Kemerovo, st. Red, 6.
The dissertation can be found in the Scientific Library of Kemerovo state university at the address 650043 Kemerovo, st. Red, 6.
Scientific Secretary

dissertation council

Candidate of Philology M. A. Osadchiy
general description of work
The reviewed dissertation research is devoted to the study of the main mechanisms of the process of mastering foreign vocabulary by native speakers.

Relevance research on the problems of borrowing foreign vocabulary, its further adaptation is due to a number of proper linguistic and linguistic reasons. Intralinguistic reasons are associated with the massive use of foreign language innovations and their active participation in many language processes observed in Russian and Chinese languages. present stage.

The interest of linguists in the study of this area is based on the insufficient study of some aspects of the linguistic phenomenon of "borrowing" and the processes of adaptation of foreign words accompanying it. The mobility and dynamism of the borrowed vocabulary gives particular importance to the issues of evolution, since their solution has great importance both for learning the language as a whole, and for understanding individual language processes. In the study of neologisms of foreign origin, the value is that part of the borrowed material that has passed into the usage, that is, it is adequately perceived and actively used by the language community. Thus, there is a need for a comprehensive study of the process of mastering foreign language innovations: in the language system, on the one hand, and by native speakers, on the other.

The problem of typological description of foreign language units in the systems of two languages deserves special consideration, since on its basis it is possible to identify interlingual and particular patterns of borrowing and assimilation processes.

The relevance of the chosen topic is also justified by the insufficient study of the latest modern borrowings in terms of their number and thematic affiliation.

In connection with the above provisions, purpose of the study- system-structural and anthropocentric study of the process of mastering foreign vocabulary.

This goal led to the following tasks:

to systematize the existing concepts of lexical borrowing;
describe the ways and sources of penetration of foreign vocabulary into various areas of the language;
to study the psychological aspects of the perception of borrowed units by separate groups of native speakers of the recipient language;
to characterize the main types of adaptation of foreign vocabulary;
identify the features of the perception of borrowed units by speakers of different ages;
highlight the main adaptation parameters.

object studies are lexical borrowings.

Subject of this work are the nature and mechanisms of mastering foreign vocabulary by the system of the recipient language and different age groups of its speakers.

Research material 600 words and phrases borrowed by Russian and Chinese in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, selected from modern dictionaries of foreign words, popular youth magazines and electronic resources, served as the basis.

The complex nature of the object under study led to the choice of the following general scientific methods and techniques: receiving a continuous sample of borrowed units from dictionaries, printed publications, electronic resources; a descriptive method based on such research techniques as observation, comparison, classification and generalization; the method of system-structural analysis, which made it possible to establish the nature and mechanisms of formal adaptation of foreign vocabulary; the method of psycholinguistic experiment used to determine the degree of mastery of foreign borrowings in different age groups of native speakers of the recipient language; elements of quantitative analysis used to process the results of the experiment and in the study of the frequency of word usage.

When describing foreign neologisms that are not recorded in dictionaries, the technique of lexicographic description was used.

Scientific novelty of the work consists in the complex application of systemic and anthropocentric approaches to the description of the process of mastering foreign neologisms; the development process is presented systematically, taking into account socio- and psycholinguistic parameters.

Theoretical significance the research consists in the fact that it identifies and describes ways of identifying the meaning of borrowed words by different age groups of native speakers; the criteria for mastering foreign vocabulary are determined; the thematic orientation of borrowed vocabulary at the present stage of development of the Russian and Chinese languages is determined; features and mechanisms of phonetic-graphic, lexical-semantic assimilation of foreign vocabulary, borrowed by the studied languages at the turn of the century, are described.

Practical significance undertaken research is the possibility of using its results in the development of lecture courses, the organization of seminars on language typology, language theory, lexicology, lexicography, Russian as a foreign language. The proposed research methodology can be used in works devoted to the problems of lexical borrowing.

Provisions for defense:

To determine the degree of mastery of foreign borrowings in the system of the recipient language, the following features are considered relevant: phonetic-graphic transmission of a foreign word by means of the recipient language, the use of a foreign word within the framework of the grammatical categories of the recipient language, consolidation (stabilization) of the meaning; and to determine the degree of mastery of foreign borrowings, the necessary features are carriers: their recognition, reproducibility, semantic and functional assimilation.
Language typology determines the nature, scale, specifics of borrowing, as well as the speed of adaptation processes in the recipient language.
The perception of foreign language vocabulary is a heterogeneous and complex process, which is determined by the individual and personal characteristics of the perceiver, as well as by the way of borrowing lexical units.
Identification of the meanings of unfamiliar/unfamiliar lexical borrowings occurs at the associative level based on the internal form and sound-graphic design. Identification of foreign words already mastered by native speakers of the recipient language is at the situational level.
The correct contextual use of a borrowed word is not always a criterion for adequate understanding by its native speakers.

Approbation of work. The main provisions and results of the study were tested in the form of discussions at meetings of the Department of English and Chinese languages of the Far Eastern Academy of Social Sciences and Humanities, reports at postgraduate seminars (Biysk, BPSU named after V.M. Shukshin, 2006, 2009) and international conferences: II International Scientific and Practical Conference "General Theoretical and Typological Problems of Linguistics" (Biysk, November 30 - December 1, 2006), International Scientific and Practical Conference (Biysk, December 4 - December 5, 2007).

Work structure. The dissertation consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion, a bibliographic list and appendices. The total volume of work is 231 pages (the main text is 178 pages). The bibliographic list includes 180 sources.
The main content of the work
In administered the relevance of the chosen topic, its novelty are substantiated, the goals, objectives and methods of research are formulated, the subject and object of research are indicated, the practical and theoretical significance is determined, the provisions submitted for defense are stated.

Chapter 1 "A retrospective analysis of approaches to the problem of mastering foreign vocabulary in languages with different structures" includes two paragraphs.

AT first paragraph various approaches to the study of lexical borrowings and their classification are considered, the problems of terminology are highlighted, the specifics of the penetration of foreign vocabulary in different periods of the history of the Russian and Chinese languages are described.

The development of the foundations of the theory of lexical borrowing is carried out in many aspects and on the basis of different languages. The work of many domestic and foreign linguists is devoted to the study of the problems of foreign language infusion, development and functioning of borrowed vocabulary: N.N. Amosova, V.M. Aristova, O.S. Akhmanova, S.A. Belyaeva, L. Bloomfield, J. Bonfante, W. Weinreich, N.S. Valgina, H. Walter, V.V. Vinogradova, E.F. Volodarskaya, Gao Mingkai, E.N. Gibalo, V.I. Gorelova, V.G. Demyanova, V.V. Ivanova, T.P. Korostina, V.G. Kostomarova, L.P. Krysin, Liu Zhengtan, I.I. Ogienko, A.A. Potebni, A.A. Reformatsky, A.L. Semenas, E. Haugen, N.M. Shansky, L. V. Shcherba and others.

AT last years the attention of linguists to the problem of studying borrowings in the sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic aspects has increased significantly, which is of great importance for studying the processes of mastering foreign words by a language community. Experiments carried out by O.V. Vysochina, O.V. Ilina, E.V. Kakorina, G.V. Pavlenko made it possible to fill a certain information gap and identify age and gender characteristics of the perception of borrowed words by native speakers of the recipient language. Despite the work done, the existing studies have not fully disclosed the mental aspects of perception, development, storage and extraction of borrowed words in the mind of an individual. In addition, there is every reason to believe that the study of these processes on the material of the Chinese language is very promising, since it is unique in nature and many linguistic phenomena in it, including the process of borrowing and adapting foreign words, are distinguished by certain specifics.

A large number of works, reflecting the plurality of approaches to the study of the problem of lexical borrowing, gave rise to some difficulties in understanding and distinguishing between a number of terms. So, the very concept of “borrowing” is interpreted by linguists ambiguously - some understand it as the language process itself (N.N. Amosova, L. Bloomfield, B.N. Zabavnikov, L.P. Krysin, A.P. Mayorov), others - its result, i.e. borrowed unit (O.S. Akhmanova, N.G. Dobrodomov, D.E. Rosenthal, M.A. Telenkova, E. Haugen, V.N. Yartseva), the third - the process of mastering foreign words by means of language (N.M. Shansky). Taking into account the fact that the term "borrowing" is ambiguous, and its meaning varies in different areas of linguistics, in this study, borrowing is understood as the process of the appearance and consolidation of any foreign language element in the language, and its result, that is, the foreign element.

Another difficulty lies in the presence of a number of nominations denoting the same concept. So, in the field of borrowing, the issue of naming the foreign element itself has not yet been resolved. Domestic linguists designate it with the terms “borrowing”, “borrowed unit”, “borrowed vocabulary”, “loan word”, “foreign word”, “foreign component”, “foreign element”, etc. Foreign - the terms "foreign word 1", "alien word 2", "borrowed word 3", "loan word 4", "Lehnwörter 5", "Fremdwörter 6", "外来语 wà i lá iyǔ 7 », «外来词 wà ilá icí 8", "借词 jiè cí 9 ".

The issue of defining the concepts of "adaptation" and "development" is also debatable. The interpretation of the term "adaptation" is determined by the scope of its use. Each researcher defines this term in terms of the aspect he is investigating. In its most general form, adaptation is understood as the process of adapting a foreign language lexical element to the phonetic, grammatical, lexico-semantic and stylistic systems of the language.

In many sources, along with the term "adaptation", the term "assimilation" is used. Assimilation of borrowed words (from Latin assimilatio – assimilation, fusion) is the process of adapting a language unit to the rules and norms of the borrowing language (N.Yu. Egorova). Due to the approximately equal use of these concepts, in this study the terms "adaptation" and "assimilation" are used as synonyms.

The concept of "mastering" should be distinguished from the terms "assimilation" and "adaptation", since it is broader and implies a more capacious process, which includes not only the processes of adaptation and assimilation of foreign words to the system of the recipient language, but also the processes of assimilation by their native speakers.

The borrowing of words implies the possibility of their analysis not only by the parameter of mastery, but also by other principles, among which the main ones are: the time of borrowing, the nature and method of borrowing, the sphere of functioning of borrowed words. So, I.I. Ogienko classifies lexical borrowings according to the principle of prescription and the degree of distribution of words in the recipient language: borrowings that have been included for a long time and are fully assimilated; foreign words that are not included in the system of the language, but are often used by its native speakers; foreign words that are not included in the system of the language and are rarely used by native speakers. It should be noted that, in principle, such an approach to the division of borrowed words seems to be very productive, since it indicates a real gradation of the degree of mastery, although not the only possible one. A number of works by domestic and foreign linguists reflect the typological classification of borrowed words. The essence of this classification lies in the fact that, according to the degree of assimilation, all words of foreign origin can be divided into 3 groups: 1. fully mastered (assimilated) borrowings; 2. partially assimilated (assimilated) borrowings; 3. non-assimilated borrowings - actually foreign words.

Despite the apparent rationality, the difficulty of this approach lies in the choice of mastery criteria, since not only formal, but also functional factors can be taken as the basis for division. In some cases, the fact of repeated use of foreign words in speech may already indicate their entry into the lexical system of the recipient language, however, in the presented classification, the concept of “degree of assimilation” is applied to ambiguous words: both borrowed and actually foreign. The latter, by definition, are not included in the language system, which already contradicts logic. The degree of assimilation can be identified only in that part of the words that has already entered the system of the receiving language.

One should also take into account the fact that the assimilation of foreign words in the recipient language is a diachronic problem and its study is possible only in a certain time slice (L.P. Krysin). Therefore, it is necessary to differentiate borrowed vocabulary according to the degree of assimilation only in a particular historical period. Taking into account the fact that the linguistic process of borrowing in any language is quite long and has a complex organization, it seems fair to say that words of foreign origin are heterogeneous both in terms of degree functional, as well as in terms of expression formal assimilation.

From the point of view of the formal degree of mastery, a more complete, in our opinion, assessment of foreign vocabulary is presented on the material of the Chinese language in the classification of T.M. Korostina. Based on the degree of phonetic, semantic and graphic development, the author divides all foreign language lexical elements into several groups: 1. borrowings with complete, partial and incomplete phonetic development; 2. borrowings with complete, incomplete semantic assimilation and borrowings with no semantic assimilation; 3. graphically assimilated and graphically undeveloped borrowings. Each stage of the assimilation process is distinguished on the basis of certain criteria, the boundaries between which are often blurred. So, in the Chinese language, during the semantic assimilation of foreign words, phonetic borrowing can be joined by the original Chinese word, which acts as a generic element, for example: 吉普车jípŭ chē Jeep"jeep" + 车chē "vehicle"), 探戈舞tàngē wŭ (探戈tàngē - from English. tango"tango" + 舞wŭ "dance"), 芭比娃娃bābĭ wáwá - Barbie (bābĭ - from English. barbi+ 娃娃wáwá "doll"). In this case, semantically undeveloped phonetic borrowing passes into a new category of foreign words with incomplete semantic assimilation.

Along with external borrowing, in some cases, so-called "internal borrowing" can be observed, which is a process of secondary borrowing within the Chinese language system. Borrowings of this kind penetrate into Putonghua not directly, but through the vocabulary of other Chinese dialects, in particular through Guangdong, which regularly “transports” Anglicisms into Putonghua, for example: 波士bōshì – boss, chief (from boss), 士多shíduō – shop (from store), 血拼 xuèpīn (from shopping）and many others. others

Borrowings are that part of the vocabulary that, like a mirror, reflects the history of the state, the people, shows the influence of external, non-linguistic factors on the development of the language. Most of the foreign vocabulary that exists in Russian and Chinese was borrowed during large-scale scientific, technical, cultural and social events. According to L.P. Krysin, in the history of the development of the Russian language, the process of borrowing foreign vocabulary took place in several stages: the period of Peter I, 30-70s. 19th century, late 19th - early 20th centuries, 90s 20th century (L.P. Krysin). Other linguists, in addition to the above periods in the history of borrowing foreign words by the Russian language, single out the period of the VIII-XII centuries, the period of the Mongol-Tatar usurpation, the period of Christianization of Russia, the period of revolutions of the early XX century, the period of globalization of the XXI century (N.S. Arapova).

In the history of the development of the Chinese language, there have also been several waves of lexical borrowing: the historical eras of the Qin, Han, Tang dynasties; second half of the 19th century and the first half of the twentieth century; period from the 80s. 20th century to the present (Li Xiangdong).

In recent decades, the influx of borrowings into Russian and Chinese has increased. The mass nature and activity of borrowing actualized the question of the extent to which foreign words are used. In the unfolding controversy, the position of opponents of artificial interference in linguistic processes seems more convincing. Language is a dynamic system, capable of “self-purifying”, getting rid of everything functionally superfluous.

The problem of mastering foreign words is closely related to the processes of storage and perception of borrowed vocabulary by individuals, which are described in second paragraph. In general, the perception of foreign language vocabulary is a heterogeneous and very complex process in which it is possible to distinguish different levels of discrimination and recognition that are in a hierarchical relationship: sensory → perceptual → semantic. At the sensory level, acoustic analysis and recognition of sounds in the composition of the word take place, at the perceptual level - their recognition, and at the semantic level - the general meaning of the perceived word is established. The semantic perception of foreign words is a very complex speech-cogitative activity of a person, due to the individual and personal characteristics of the perceiver, as well as the nature of the lexical units themselves.

Perception new and already mastered carriers of words occurs at different levels. Identification of the meanings of new lexical units occurs according to the principle of "associative reactions" of carriers based on a word-formation model. Perception of the semantic content of familiar vocabulary - there is always a way to certain situation. The perception of the meaning of a polysemantic word also correlates with the situational context, which in most cases contains all the necessary information for an accurate interpretation of the word.

The ambiguity of a foreign word is a significant obstacle to interpretation. In the process of identifying the meaning, a polysemantic word is correlated with the conditions for its implementation, with a certain situational context, which contains all the necessary information for an accurate understanding of the word. The understanding of foreign words can either correspond to the nature of perceived things and phenomena, or not correspond to it. In many cases, the use of borrowed vocabulary is completely different from its knowledge, which is a prerequisite for the correctness of speech. In addition, such parameters of the speakers as age, education, and occupation are important, since foreign vocabulary contains a huge number of a wide variety of social assessments.

Second chapter"System-structural study of the development of foreign vocabulary in Russian and Chinese at the present stage" consists of three paragraphs.

In the first paragraph the method of selection and classification of material is presented. The selection of material for the study was carried out by continuous sampling from Russian and Chinese dictionaries of foreign words, popular youth magazines and Internet resources (electronic dictionaries, texts posted on Russian, Chinese sites, and "electronic" speech of visitors to various forums).

The choice of additional sources of material is not accidental. It was dictated by the need to note a group of foreign language neologisms that have not yet been recorded in dictionaries, but have become widespread in recent years. The global information network and modern magazines are a reliable recorder of new linguistic phenomena, and the youth audience is the most striking contingent of native speakers in terms of foreign language injections, which contributes to the active spread of borrowed units.

In the course of working with dictionary and electronic materials, ~ 30,000 lexical units borrowed by Russian and Chinese were obtained, of which about 600 words and phrases were selected for the study itself. The gradation of lexical units (word/phrase) was not taken into account, since the determining factor is not their type, but the concept they express. The main selection criteria were:

time of borrowing (late 20th - early 21st centuries)
frequency and prevalence (frequency of use in the speech of native speakers and written sources);
functional unlimitedness (belonging to various spheres of society).

It should be said that the study of all foreign vocabulary borrowed by Russian and Chinese at the turn of the century is unrealistic due to the large amount of material, so we will only talk about a fragment of the borrowed corpus. The analysis of frequency indicators made it possible to identify the 50 most commonly used borrowed words in each language, as well as to trace the dynamics of their functioning in speech. The following methods were used to calculate the frequency of word usage:

quantitative counting of links to selected foreign words in Internet search engines;
selection of the most commonly used borrowed words based on the analysis of journalistic texts.

The selected material allows us to identify a number of main features that are typical for modern lexical borrowings in the studied languages:

mass character;
homogeneity in relation to the source language (the presence of predominantly one donor language - English in the American version);
the existence of several formal variants of the same borrowed word (in some cases, differences in variants are found both in written and oral speech: fashion – fashion, 色拉 sè lā – 沙拉 shā lā "salad", and in others (in Russian) - only in written or only in oral speech: promotion – promotion, provider - provider[e]);
the predominance of unambiguous vocabulary, which is explained by the tendency of the compared languages to borrow a specific concept.
unequal borrowing speed: the Russian language responds to a foreign language innovation faster than Chinese;
different ways of translating foreign language material: in the Russian language in recent decades, the vast majority of borrowed vocabulary is phonetic borrowings, in Chinese, on the contrary, a large percentage of the total borrowings are tracing papers. This fact is explained by the unequal capabilities of language systems to adapt borrowed vocabulary: the Russian language is based on alpha-sound writing, Chinese - on hieroglyphic writing.

In second paragraph Chapter 2 reflects the thematic principle of organizing the collected foreign language material. The distribution of the material by thematic groups showed that in the Chinese language the bulk of the borrowed vocabulary is made up of words belonging to the scientific and technical sphere, which is associated with its intensive development, and words belonging to the everyday sphere. Borrowings in the field of science and technology are primarily terms. Over the past decades, a large number of computer terms have appeared in Chinese, for example: 多媒体duōméitǐ - multimedia, 服务器fúwùqì - server, etc.

As for everyday foreign words, they are very diverse and, as a rule, include the names of food products: 可口可乐kěkŏukělè - Coca-Cola, 纷达fēndà - Fanta; names of fast food restaurants / cafes: 必胜客 Bìshèngkè - "Pizza Hut" (Pizza Hut), 麦当劳 Màidāngláo - "McDonald's" (English McDonalds - the surname of the founders); titles Vehicle: 奥迪àodí - Audi, 福特 fútè - Ford; clothes: Т-恤 T-xù - t-shirt (from English t-shirt), 夹克jiākè - jacket (from English jacket); names of brands, magazines, for example: ADIDAS - 阿地达斯 ādìdàsī，LOREAL - 欧莱雅 ōuláiyǎ, SONY - 索尼suŏní OLEY - 奥兰油 aōlányóu, ELLE - 伊丽yīlì; names of Internet sites, reference resources, search engines: Wikipedia - 维基百科 wéijībăikè, Yahoo - 雅虎 yăhŭ and many others.

Borrowings in the field of politics, economics, culture and sports are not numerous and in the vast majority are phonorecords of foreign words. These are the names of monetary units: 卢布lúbù - ruble, 马克mǎkè - mark, 法郎fǎláng - franc; names of international organizations: Yukos - 尤科斯 yóukēsī, UN - 联合国liánhé guó, WTO - 世界贸易组织shìjiè màoyì zŭzhī; names of musical trends, dances, sports, for example: 爵士juéshì - jazz (from English jazz), 流行音乐líuxíng yīnyuè - pop music (from English pop 10 -music), 霹雳舞pīlìwŭ - break dance (from English. break-dance), 保龄球 bǎolíngqiú - bowling (from English bowling), 乒乓球pīngpāngqiú - ping-pong (from English ping-pong), etc.

In the Russian language of the late XX - early XXI century, the following thematic spaces are actively replenished with new foreign words:

science and technology (in particular computer science);
economics and finance (including trade and advertising);
culture and show business;
sport;
everyday life;
politics, government and law.

Over the past decades, the influence of English terminology in financial and economic activity has especially increased: outsourcing, benchmarking, welfare, distributor, clearing, logistics, merchandising, offshore, promoter, sequestration, tender, franchising and many others.

In the field of informatics and computer technology, there is also a widespread use of English terms (especially in the field of software), for example: upgrade, browser, decrement, interface, login, plugin, traffic, file and so on. This is due to the specifics of the very process of development of computer technology and informatics. It is known that in the last twenty years, leadership in this area belongs to American companies that control most of the world market. Simultaneously with the advent of electronic computers and the Internet, computer jargon was formed, which became an extremely active subsystem of the Russian language of the period under study: upgrade, blogger, noob, offtopic, search, helper, chat and others.

A characteristic moment of borrowing at the present stage is a large amount of vocabulary related to culture and show business. In their overwhelming majority, these are words of American origin, characteristic not so much of the literary language, but of American mass culture: bestseller, blockbuster, DJ (DJ) , mix, pop, rock club, sound track, single, session, mc (MS), show.

A striking sign of the studied time period are foreign-language innovations in the field of sports. Most of them are the names of new sports, for example: arm wrestling, windsurfer G, diving, kitesurfing, robjumping, street racing and many others.

A significant proportion of the total number of borrowings is political, legal vocabulary and vocabulary of public administration: impeachment, the president, referendum, speaker, electorate and others. In connection with the increased politicization of Russian society, the politicization of certain lexical groups is also taking place. Words that initially had nothing to do with politics are moving into political discourse, for example, round(meaning “stage, phase of negotiations, meetings of any delegations).

Due to the mutual permeability of many spheres of society's life, foreign vocabulary actively penetrates into everyday discourse. New words first of all replenish the group of vocabulary related to the following areas:

food, drinks - hamburger, slices, snack, Coca Cola, popcorn, cheeseburger, energy tonic;
household items, jewelry, toys - jacuzzi, microwave, tips, transformer;
clothes: bodysuit, capri, swinger, top, french.

The thematic classification of borrowed words made it possible to identify their functional features. Speaking about the functional and genre distribution of borrowed words in Russian and Chinese, it should be noted that modern media and the global telecommunications network are most saturated with them. This is explained by the fact that television, radio, the press and the Internet constitute the space of mass communication, which combines materials from various linguistic subsystems. In addition, it is necessary to note the fact of the penetration of foreign vocabulary (Americanisms) into different variants common language - literary language (written and oral speech) and substandard (jargon, slang). Such manifestations are primarily associated with a change in the socio-psychological mood of the carriers - a kind of fashion for the use of American terms in various spheres of life. Many researchers tend to see this as a new stage in the process of "Americanization" and "vulgarization" of speech.

The development of foreign language innovations is a complex language process, which, due to its multidimensionality, is considered by linguists from different positions. Until the middle of the last century, the dominant approach was in which the process of mastering was reduced only to the formal assimilation of foreign language units to the system of the recipient language. It was replaced by a different approach based on the prerogative of the functional development of borrowed vocabulary, that is, the adaptation of foreign language units to the lexico-semantic system of the borrowing language. At the present stage, the trend of a comprehensive analysis of lexical borrowings is gaining momentum, since the formal and functional sides are just different aspects of a single learning process. AT third paragraph the mechanisms of formal adaptation of lexical borrowings in Russian and Chinese are considered.

Traditionally, there are three types of formal adaptation: phonetic, graphic and grammatical (morphological). Phonetic adaptation consists in the reproduction of foreign-language sound complexes by phonetic units of the recipient language. This type of formal development is closely related to graphic adaptation, in which a foreign word is fixed by graphic means of the host language. Grammar adaptation involves the inclusion of a foreign language unit in the grammatical system of the receiving language by subordinating it to grammatical norms and laws. All these three types of adaptation constantly interact with each other, which is due to the systemic nature of the lexical fund of the language.

The formal side of the process of mastering foreign language innovations is associated with the genetic relationship or typological similarity of the contacting languages: the fewer similarities the source language and the recipient language have, the more changes the borrowed word will undergo in a new language environment (E.E. Birzhakova et al. .; S.V. Grinev). It follows that the nature of phonetic and grammatical adaptation directly depends on how the external appearance of the borrowed word corresponds to the phonetic units and morphological models of the recipient language. The results of a comparative analysis showed that the number of English-language borrowings prevails in Chinese and Russian, therefore, in this paragraph, English is considered as a donor language, and Chinese and Russian as recipient languages. English and Russian are Indo-European languages and have some typological similarities. The nature of phonetic and grammatical adaptation in them depends on the degree of correspondence of the foreign language prototype to the existing phonetic units and morphological models. It should be noted that the process of phonetic adaptation of borrowed words in the Russian language proceeds more slowly than the acquisition of morphological indicators by them. The Russian language is inflectional and has a developed system of inflection. The features of its grammatical structure largely determine the nature of grammatical changes that are associated with the categories of gender, number, declension of nouns and adjectives, and conjugation of verbs. As a rule, foreign borrowings acquire grammatical categories of the recipient language, regardless of whether the grammatical system of the donor language has them.

Unlike Russian and English, in which morphological meanings are very stable, words in Chinese do not have external morphological features, so the boundaries of partial belonging are very blurred. A well-known Sinologist linguist, author of many works of a general theoretical nature, V.A. Kurdyumov proposes to characterize the morphological meanings of words in Chinese as positions that a lexical unit can occupy in a sentence. The concept of "position" implies a certain fixed position. Such a "position" in Chinese is not characteristic of parts of speech, but of the members of the sentence, in which they function. Therefore, it seems more correct here and below to call the morphological categories of words in Chinese the functions that lexical units perform within a sentence. For example, in the sentence "我买了一件红大衣 Wŏ măile yí jiàn hóng dàyī" (I bought (one) red coat) word red acts as an adjective, while in the sentence "她脸红了 Tā liăn hóngle” (Her face turned red) this word functions as a verb.

Another specific feature of the grammatical system of the Chinese language is the absence of form change 11 . Chinese words do not change by case, number, tense, gender. They acquire the appropriate meanings depending on the place in the sentence and by adding special functional words (prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, modal and phrasal particles), which replace inflections and prefixes (Fang Yuqing). When borrowed, foreign words lose their morphological decorators and function in the language on the model of native Chinese words.

Due to the indicated features of the grammatical systems of the Russian, Chinese and English languages, it seems impossible to identify the typological properties of the process of morphological adaptation of lexical borrowings, therefore, below we will only talk about the phonographemic features of the process of mastering foreign vocabulary by the systems of Russian and Chinese languages.

There is no doubt that each language has its own graphic means to convey sound. Russian and English writing- sound, and its main elements are letters. The relationship between letters and sounds in modern Russian spelling is quite complex, which determined the nature of the phonetic-graphic development of English-language innovations. Due to the typological differences between the phonetic systems of Russian and English, the reproduction of the sound form of the English prototype often has only an approximate character. So, the consonant [ŋ], denoted in writing by the letter combination ng, there is no Russian analogue, therefore it is transmitted by a combination of consonants ng: dancyng – dancing, consultingng – consulting, roamyng – roaming, skydivingng – skydiving, styleng –styling, fandrazing – funraising. There is also no sound in the Russian language system, therefore, when borrowing words that contain it in their composition, it is replaced by a Russian combination j: give j eats - digest, j az - jazz, me j ep - manager, etc.

In a number of cases, there is a tendency towards phonetically accurate reproduction of foreign vocabulary: upgrade– upgrade, brand– brand, drive– drive, quiz–quiz, nail design - nail-design, file - file. The same applies to the mechanisms of accentuation of borrowed words. Borrowings relating to the end of the 20th - beginning of the 11th centuries, as a rule, follow the stress of the source language, for example: summit – ["sΛmit], headline – ["headline].

Phonetic and spelling adaptation in Chinese is significantly hampered, which is associated with hieroglyphic writing and with a complex phonetic organization: syllabic languages do not have complete analogues of non-syllabic phonemes, so all adaptation processes are carried out within the syllable, and not the combination of sounds. During the transition of English words to the Chinese language system, the following sound changes are indicative of phonetic assimilation:

D ifthongization of vowels:

vowel about changes to diphthong uabout or ao (mot o r→mot uo; c o py → k ao bei);
vowel i changes to diphthongs ei, ai (f i lm→f ei li n; comb i ne → kangb ai yin);
vowel e and combination ee change to diphthongs ei, yi, ai (E- mail → yi meier; e nergy → ai naerji; coff ee→ kaf ei; j ee p→j i pu);
vowel a changes to ei in the word h a ker → h ei ke.

Lengthening / shortening of vowels: in the event that short English vowels function as syllable-forming syllables in syllables read by tone 1, they are lengthened, and vice versa, long vowels of the English language are transformed into short ones within syllables read by tone 4.
Replacement: in the absence of a consonant that is identical in sound, one consonant can change to another. Below are the most common substitutions.

English r changes to Chinese l (r umba → l unba; r ally→ l ali);
English p changes to Chinese b (P entium → b enteng; uto p ia → wutuo b ang; p udding → b uding);
English b changes to Chinese p (b er → p i);
English s is replaced by a letter combination sh (s alad → sh ala; s ause→ sh asi; bu s→ba shi);
English c replaced by aspirated k (c artoon → k atong; c ard → k a; dis c o → disi k e);
English m changes to Chinese n or ng provided that m is at the end of the word, since the structure of the Chinese syllable is such that the final consonants in it are always nasal sonants n, ng (fil m→ feili n, co m bine→ka ng Baiyin; ha m burger → ha n bao);
English ph in some cases replaced by Chinese f(micro ph one → maike f eng);
English g is replaced by j if the syllable is pronounced as "dz" (g ene → j iyin);
English ch is changing on the q (ch ocola t e → q iaokeli; ch a-cha-cha → q iaqia).

Disappearance of consonant fusion, which is not allowed by the laws of phonetic organization of Chinese syllables 12:

vowel epenthesis ( tr est → t uo lasi, go lf→ gao er fu, br andy → b ai l an di);
dropping out consonants (mic r ophone → maikefeng, coo l→ ku, jacke t→ jiake, san d wich → sanmingzhi).

It is also necessary to note the role of the semantic significance of Chinese syllables, which determines the determinant of the process of phonetic-graphic adaptation - the semantic understanding of the borrowed vocabulary. Modifications that occur within the syllabic system are carried out in such a way that the syllables chosen for recording foreign language units, one way or another correlate with their meaning. Examples include borrowings "model" (模特儿mótèer - from the English model) and "cartoon" (卡通kătōng - from the English cartoon). The morpheme 模mó in the first word has the meaning of imitate, imitate, sample; the morpheme 卡kă in the second is a previously borrowed element that conveys the meaning "card", and the morpheme 通tōng is used in the meaning "to go, lead". Thus, when borrowing foreign-language lexemes into Chinese, the most preferable is the connection between the form of the word and its meaning. Of course, not all foreign-language sounds can be semantically comprehended. In the Chinese language system, a large percentage of phonetic borrowings does not correlate in any way with the meaning of the morphemes of their constituents. In addition, in the Chinese language system, the change of any foreign word is not always carried out consistently, to the end. Some of the loanwords exist in Chinese with some properties that are foreign to it. These include the so-called alphabetic borrowings, which include foreign-language graphic elements.

The third chapter "Experimental study of the adaptation of foreign vocabulary in the systems of Russian and Chinese languages and its perception by native speakers" consists of four paragraphs.

AT first paragraph the method of organizing and conducting an experiment is described, the main purpose of which was to identify the features of the process of adaptation of foreign vocabulary in a language community. The insufficient development of the problem under study required reliance on the types of experiments already available in modern psycholinguistics, in particular, questioning and receptive (delayed) experiment.

Two groups of Russian and Chinese recipients took part in the experiment:

recipients aged 20-30 years;
recipients aged 31-50 years.

The choice of these age groups is not accidental. Their representatives are people with a well-formed vocabulary and an active social position. In addition, age differentiation causes differentiation of speech activity, and, consequently, linguistic material, which in turn determines the mechanisms of perception. The perception of the borrowed vocabulary by representatives of each group was carried out in the conditions of a limited knowledge base, since carriers who did not work in special areas and were unfamiliar with the realities of foreign life were deliberately involved as recipients. We, following L.P. Krysin, we believe that the exit of a foreign word beyond the scope of a special sphere and overcoming various situational, social restrictions is one of characteristic features the process of mastering borrowed vocabulary (L.P. Krysin).

The total number of informants was 100 people: 50 native speakers of Russian (26 - the first group, 24 - the second group), 50 native speakers of Chinese (26 - the first group, 24 - the second group). The gender factor was not taken into account.

The subjects were asked to complete the following tasks:

1. indicate a familiar (-) or unfamiliar (+) presented borrowed word;

2. indicate whether (-) is used or not used (+) the presented word in one's own speech;

3. write down the subjective definition of each word;

4. pick up mini-contexts for each borrowed unit.

Due to the large amount of material, the list of words offered to different groups of speakers varied and included 25 units borrowed from Russian and Chinese, which belong to various spheres of society: economics, politics, computer technology, culture, sports, everyday life. The words were presented in isolation, without any context.

Analysis of the results of the first task made it possible to evaluate the studied words according to the parameter of novelty. In this study, the degree of novelty was determined by the coefficient of novelty, which was calculated by dividing the number of negative responses by the total number of responses. Words with a coefficient from 1 to 0.67 were characterized as having a high degree of novelty and assigned to the first group; with a coefficient from 0.67 to 0.33 - as having an average degree of novelty and are assigned to the second group; with a coefficient from 0.33 to 0 - as having a low degree of novelty and are assigned to the third group. Accordingly, words with a coefficient equal to 1 are characterized as unknown, and those with a coefficient equal to 0 are known.

The second task was aimed at determining the frequency of use of the studied corpus of borrowed units by native speakers of the recipient language. The frequency of word usage was determined by the frequency coefficient, which is calculated by dividing the number of positive reactions by the total number of reactions. Words with a coefficient between 1 and 0.67 were characterized as having high usage; with a coefficient from 0.67 to 0.33 - as having an average frequency of use; with a coefficient from 0.33 to 0 - as words with low usage.

In the third task, the informants were asked to indicate the meaning of the borrowed words. The analysis of the obtained explications made it possible to identify various ways identification of the meanings of borrowed units and correlate their dictionary definitions with the information that is stored in the lexicon of the speakers.

The importance of the fourth task is to identify the ability of informants to independently select the context, establish semantic and syntactic links. The use of words in any context has a diagnostic role in assessing the ability to use foreign vocabulary in speech. The problem of handling information obtained in the process of mass communication is described in the works of T. Dridze, A. Mol. So, A. Mol notes the asymmetric nature of the process of mass communication: the amount of information received by carriers through a system of foreign language innovations can exceed the ability to assimilate it and operate with it. The experimental data described in the work of T. Dridze showed that 30% of informants who correctly identified the meaning of common political terms were unable to use them in speech. In our experiments, we found a directly proportional trend. Speakers use borrowings in speech constructions, but understand their meaning quite relatively. In our opinion, this phenomenon is associated with the automatic memorization of foreign words in certain structures without their direct development.

In second paragraph the main features of the perception of foreign language innovations by native speakers of the Russian language are described, in third paragraph- Native Chinese speakers. Benchmarking mechanisms of perception of borrowed vocabulary by native speakers of two languages is given in fourth paragraph.

Most high level recognition, knowledge and use of borrowings were shown by representatives of the group of recipients aged 20-30 years. At the present stage of development of the youth subsystem of the Russian language, computer vocabulary has been updated, vocabulary related to the domestic sphere and the sphere of culture and show business. Representatives of the older generation adequately perceive and more actively use the borrowings of socio-political discourse. Among Chinese youth, everyday and computer vocabulary is widespread, among older speakers - only household vocabulary.

The process of semantic adaptation of a foreign word involves the transformation of its semantic structure, which occurs as a result of its ignorance or false / inaccurate understanding. The study showed that the main changes that the semantic structure of foreign words in two languages has undergone are:

expansion of the semantic structure;
narrowing of the semantic structure;
displacement of the hierarchy of values;
change in semantic volume.

The process of expanding the semantic structure can occur as a result of semantic derivation or semantic duplication of a borrowed word, which, in turn, is associated with increased functional activity and valence. For example: banner→ shield, poster; 奔腾 "Pentium" → processor.

The narrowing of the semantic structure of a borrowed word is possible due to the loss of a sememe or generalization of meanings and is associated with the transition of the word to other functional areas. For example: artman(person working in the field of art) → art designer; 巴士 (bus) → luxury bus.

A shift in the hierarchies of meanings is possible for polysemantic borrowed words, when one of the meanings is put forward in the category of the most relevant. For example, in the word drive the meaning of “a state of pleasant excitement, pleasure from drugs” has gone to the periphery. It should be noted that over time, the actual significance of borrowing may be lost. In this case, his communicative activity is reduced.

Semantic modification or change in the volume of meaning occurs as a result of the appearance/disappearance/partial replacement of any semes in a sememe. For example in the word flyer the seme “advertising leaflet appeared, offering a discount on entry to any entertainment venue. Since in this study the functioning of foreign words is considered on a certain synchronic cut, there are no grounds to speak about the disappearance of any semes, we can only note those that have appeared again and those that may be lost over time.

The results of the analysis of the semantic description showed that the perception of borrowed words is due to the age characteristics of the carriers and the nature of the lexical units themselves. Below are the main strategies for identifying the meanings of foreign language vocabulary, typical for the recipients of the studied groups:

Identification of the meanings of unfamiliar and unfamiliar lexical borrowings

a) associative strategy: quiz- win, newsmaker– TV, skydiving - extreme, flyer– discount, 热线 rèxiàn (hotline) – 电台diàntái (television), 伊眉儿 yī mé iĕ r (Email) – 网路 wǎnglù (Internet).

b) strategy based on the similarity of sound and graphic design foreign words: drive- bliss, sticker– speaker, loser- user, freak- lard, 酷 kù (cool) - 醋 cù (vinegar), 用户 yònghù (user) - 客户 kèhù (client).

in) strategy for addressing a foreign prototype, which is used by bilinguals, in cases where the presented foreign word is unfamiliar to them or in cases where it is necessary to clarify its meaning: traffic – road traffic, action– action, skydiving- air diving, 酷 kù (cool) - cool, 秀xiù - show;

2. Identification of psychological components of familiar foreign words

a) relation to the situation: topless- sunbathing PR- election campaign traffic– restriction of Internet access, 酷 kù (cool) – 夸男生 (praise men) 桑拿 sāngná (sauna) – 洗澡 (wash);

b) identification by definition: speechwriter- human, writing texts speeches for members of the state apparatus, florist- a person making bouquets, 价格表 jiàgébiǎo (price list) - 商品，物品价格的清单 (an ordered list of goods, items with prices), 比基尼 bĭjīnĭ (bikini) - 女士泳装的一种 (a type of women's bathing suit);

in) categorization: banner - advertising , consulting– economics and business, roaming- mobile connection, summit- politics, speechwriter - politics, styling – appearance, fashion, fundraising- economy, fitness- sports, 汉堡包hànbǎobāo (hamburger), 热狗 règŏu (hot dog) - 食品 (food);

G) illustrating by example: provider– Dalsvyaz, Altaisvyaz, 汉堡包hànbǎobāo (hamburger) – KFC (Kentucky Fried Chicken), McDonald’s;

e) synonym selection: loser- loser; 拷贝kǎobèi (copy) – 复印

e) emotional evaluation strategy, which is characterized by the presence of a subjective-emotional component: brutal- masculine, sexy, print(on clothes) - fashionable, roaming- extortion of money topless- shame, 模特儿mótèr (model) - 漂亮 (beautiful). It is explained by the property of words to carry different information, which may include images, emotional evaluation. In other words, language reflects a certain way of perceiving and organizing the world, and an individual, perceiving any foreign word, can rely on a subjective attitude to the object or phenomenon designated by it.

Chinese speakers use two specific strategies to identify familiar loanwords − strategy for selecting an analogue in the native language:拜拜 bàibài (from English bye-bye) – 再见 zàijiàn (goodbye), 巴士bāshì (from English bus) – 公共汽车 gōnggòng qìchē (bus); strategy of morphemic selection of a synonym with structure preservation:快餐kuàicān (fast food) – 速食 sùshí (fast food). The first strategy is associated with the simultaneous existence in Chinese of foreign borrowings and native words denoting the same concept. The language fashion contributes to the introduction of these words into everyday life. The reasons for using the second lie in the syllabic nature of the Chinese language, in which the syllable is a semantically significant unit.

When deciding on the assimilation of a borrowing by carriers, its knowledge / ignorance and understanding / misunderstanding are the defining characteristics. Ignorance of a foreign language unit entails its distorted perception. The distorted perception of a borrowed word leads to its erroneous use, the nature of which is of greatest interest to this study. As a result of the analysis of sentences composed by native Russian speakers, the following cases of erroneous use were identified:

formally correct usage with inconsistency with meaning (digest, meaning "magazine": you can order this digest by mail or buy it at a kiosk;print in the meaning of "print, print": large print, trendy print of the season.) ;
formal misuse with a violation of the correspondence to the meaning (brand in the meaning of "very fashionable thing": my skirt is last month's brand;loser in the meaning of "profane": I'm just a loser in this new program;flyer in the meaning of "floating sites on the Internet": flyers interfere with networking.) ;
formally misused while retaining the meaning (A man with a brutal look. Such a PR was spread around Kirkorov. He has a successful promotion. There is face control at the entrance to the club. Next week we will go on a shopping tour.).

In Chinese, due to the lack of morphological indicators, cases of using a borrowed word cannot be considered from the standpoint of formal correctness. We can only talk about the correspondence / non-correspondence of the use of a borrowed unit to its meaning. In the course of the analysis of sentences compiled by the carriers, only three cases of complete or partial semantic inconsistency were identified:

Cases of complete inconsistency with the meaning of phonetic borrowing 贴士 tiē shì "tips":

班长写了一张关于健康饮食的小贴士。– Group leader wrotenote about healthy eating.

在贴吧里有许多贴士。– There are many on the forummessages .

The complete discrepancy between the use of this borrowed word and its meaning occurred due to a distortion of perception. In the first case, the recipient identified the general meaning of the word based on the meaning of its constituent morphemes. The morpheme 贴 has several meanings in Chinese, one of which is "note". Morpheme士 in Chinese, in addition to the main meaning "warrior", has an additional grammatical meaning: it joins verbal and nominal stems to form the category of nouns. In the second case, perception occurred based on the word 贴吧 "forum", "a place on the site for posting ads, appeals", which has a morph to him贴 . The recipient explicated the meaning of the borrowing as "a message on some forum". It should be noted that this borrowing is semantically meaningful. The Chinese, transcribing the English word tip, deliberately chose the morpheme 贴, which has the meaning "to provide financial assistance." It is surprising that the carriers did not correlate given value With general meaning borrowed word. Although it can be assumed that in the interpretation of a particular borrowing, native speakers of the recipient language tend to include the most relevant information for them.

Case of partial mismatch of phonetic borrowing 秀xiù "show":

听说你买了新裤子，秀一下。– They say you bought new pantsshow them.

Partial inconsistency in the use of borrowing show its semantics arose in connection with a shift in the meaning of the word: show→ show, demonstrate.

A generalization of the analysis of the use of borrowed words leads to the conclusion that in the process of mastering a foreign word goes a long and difficult path from ignorance, false / inaccurate interpretation to adequate perception. The correct use of borrowed vocabulary in any context is not always a guarantee of its adequate perception by native speakers. When analyzing the material obtained in the course of a survey of native speakers of the Russian language, cases of mechanical memorization of a foreign word and its formally correct use without understanding the meaning were revealed.

AT imprisonment the main results of the study are summarized, their relationship with the general goal and specific tasks set in the introduction, and the prospects for further study of the problems considered in the work are outlined.

A generalized analysis of the results of the study made it possible to determine the criteria for mastering foreign vocabulary. Relevant signs of mastery of borrowings in the language system are considered: phonetic-graphic transmission of a foreign word by means of the recipient language; the use of a foreign word within the framework of the grammatical categories of the recipient language; consolidation (stabilization) of the value.

The necessary parameters for mastering foreign borrowings in the speech of native speakers are the following: recognition - determined by the coefficient of novelty; reproducibility - determined by the number of speakers using borrowing in speech; semantic assimilation - is determined by the ability of carriers to explain the meaning of a borrowed unit; functional assimilation is determined by the ability to semantically correctly use a borrowed word in speech.

Thus, based on the listed features, it is possible to distinguish five degrees of mastery of foreign vocabulary: higher, high, medium, low, zero.

Words from the highest degree of mastery- words that are fixed in dictionaries, have a zero coefficient of novelty, the maximum frequency of use, are formally correctly and semantically accurately used by speakers in speech constructions.

High degree development characterized by words recorded in dictionaries, which are characterized by a low coefficient of novelty, a high rate of word usage, and correct contextual use.

Intermediate degree development have words that are recorded in the dictionary in at least one of the meanings, with average indicators of novelty, frequency of use in speech, correctly / partially incorrectly used by speakers in speech constructions.

Words from low degree of development- words that have appeared in the language, but not yet recorded in dictionaries, with a low coefficient of frequency of use, with a high degree novelties that are incorrectly used by speakers in speech constructions.

Zero mastery have words that have appeared in the language, but not yet recorded in dictionaries, which are not recognized by native speakers and are not used in their own speech.

It should be noted that when deciding on the distribution of borrowed vocabulary according to the degree of mastery, it is more expedient to rely on the indicators of the younger generation, since they form a modern speech usage. In addition, the degree of mastery of common and terminological vocabulary should be assessed differently, since the area of use of the latter is functionally limited.

The work does not cover all the parameters that affect the nature of the development of borrowed vocabulary by the language community. Further analysis of the experimental materials may include a description of the semantic modifications of words, taking into account gender. Observations show that the ways of explicating the meanings of borrowed words are different for men and women: men explicate meanings at the level of archisemes, women at the level of differential semes. In addition, men are more expressive in their assessment. However, these facts need careful experimental verification. The study can also be expanded by including such parameters of the speakers as education, occupation, since foreign vocabulary contains a huge number of a wide variety of social assessments.

AT applications there are lists of borrowed words distributed by thematic groups, collected as a result of the analysis of dictionaries, journalistic texts , computer materials and most widely used in the Russian and Chinese languages of the late 20th - early 21st centuries; table of Chinese syllables; sample questionnaires used in the experiment.

The main provisions of the dissertation are presented in the following publications.

Borisova, O. S. Identification of the meanings of borrowed words by native Russian and Chinese speakers [Text] / O. S. Borisova // World of science, culture, education. - Gorno-Altaisk, 2009. - 3 (15) - S. 57-63

Publications in other publications:

Borisova, O. S. Classification of borrowings in modern Chinese. Adaptation of phonetic borrowings [Text] / O. S. Borisova // General theoretical and typological problems of linguistics: materials of the II International Scientific and Practical Conference (Biysk, November 30 - December 1, 2006) / Biysk State Ped. un-t im. V.M. Shukshin. - Biysk: BPGU im. V.M. Shukshina, 2006. - S. 19-25.
Borisova, O. S. On the nature of phonetic-semantic borrowings in Chinese [Text] / O. S. Borisova // General theoretical and typological problems of linguistics: materials of the international scientific-practical conference (Biysk, December 4 - December 5, 2007) / Biysk ped.state. un-t im. V.M. Shukshin. - Biysk: BPGU im. V.M. Shukshina, 2007. - S. 3-6
Borisova, O. S. Mastering foreign vocabulary: semantic borrowings in modern Chinese [Text] / O. S. Borisova // Picture of the world: language, literature, culture: collection of scientific articles. Issue III. / resp. ed. N.I. Doronin. / Biysk ped.state. un-t im. V.M. Shukshin. - Biysk: BPGU im. V.M. Shukshina, 2008. - S. 141-144
Borisova, O. S. Ways and sources of borrowing in Chinese [Text] / O. S. Borisova // Almanac of modern science and education. - Tambov: Diploma, 2008. - No. 8: Linguistics and literary criticism in synchrony and diachrony and methods of teaching language and literature: In 2 hours - Part 1. – pp. 21-25

You can talk about different types borrowing other people's words: a) lexical, b) morphematic, c) derivational.In the first case, the word as a whole is borrowed (theme, form, bureau, dressing table, full house, etc.); of course, in this case, in the borrowing language, it can change both its meaning and its sound.

In the second case, the morpheme structure of the word and the meaning of morphemes (i.e., the smallest meaningful parts of the word - roots, prefixes, suffixes, etc.) are borrowed, but morphemes are only translated using the corresponding morphemes of the borrowing language, their meaning is borrowed, not sound.

Such borrowing is called tracing paper (from the French caique - a copy on a transparent sheet, imitation). So, Russian word the subject is skalked from the Latin word objectum: the prefix ob- is translated by the prefix pre-, the root ject is translated by the root -met-, and the end of the Latin word is discarded.

The German word Vorstellung is calque with the Russian word representation: the prefix vor- corresponds to the prefix pre-, the root -stell- is replaced by the Russian root -stav-, the suffix -ung - to the Russian suffix -enie. Whole expressions can also be tracing.

Finally, in the third case, words are borrowed that are used in the borrowing language to build, form a new word - one that was not in the source language. This is how the words agrobiology, biometrics, teletype, telemetry, philology and many others were obtained. There are also less certain types borrowing foreign vocabulary.

But the study of borrowings is by no means limited to understanding the ways and means of penetration of "foreign" words into "one's own" language. It is very important to understand what is going on with the word when it is in a language that is “foreign” to it.

So, at first, the word penetrates into the language along with an object or phenomenon borrowed from another people. Then the process of adaptation to the new language begins. First of all, a new phonetic-morphological form is formed, which arises as a result of phonetic and morphological substitution. True, quite often the whole word is borrowed - along with suffixes and prefixes. But then it still begins to "grow" with other morphemes.

In the Russian language, first of all, inflection changes, because Russian is an inflectional language. Quite often, the accent also changes, although not always. So, when borrowing words from the French language, in which the stress falls on the last syllable, in Russian these words quite often change their stress, although the stress of many of them remains unchanged. At the next stage, derivative words from the borrowed word appear, which are already formed according to the laws new to this word of the language.

So, some time after the word moon was borrowed from the Italian language, the words lunar, hole, lunatic, sublunar, lunar appeared. Sometimes there is a change in the meaning of borrowed words. This process is due to the fact that the meanings of many foreign words are not always perceived in the right way. For example, the German word Maler - artist, in Russian has turned into a painter. Apparently, when this word "came" to Russia, its meaning was not understood in the right way.

The change in the meaning of borrowed words is also due to the fact that not all the meanings of the word that are characteristic of it in the native language take root in the Russian language. For example, there was a change in the value of such a multi-valued in English language words like sports

sport- 1) entertainment, joke; 2) fan; 3) dandy.

But not all borrowed words undergo complete grammatical reformulation and rethinking.

There are many examples of the use of foreign words with a partial change, dandy, lady - eng. dandy, lady, or no change at all, cf.: sketch - eng. sketch; farmstead, dandy - Polish. forwak, frant; form, formula - lat. form, formula, etc.

In order to become a borrowing, a word that came from a foreign language must gain a foothold in a new language for itself, firmly enter its vocabulary - as many foreign words entered the Russian language, such as bread, Cup,umbrella,score,cat,horse,dog,a monkey,tie,compote,tractor,tank,harbor,sail,icon,church,choir,sport,market,bazaar,music,railway station,car,Goal,hut,glass,herring,soup,cucumber,tomato,cutlet,potatoes,pot,plate,tea,sugar etc., many of which turned out to be so mastered by the Russian language that only linguists know about their foreign language origin (9).

When borrowing, the word is adapted to the phonological system of the borrowing language, i.e. the missing sounds in it are replaced by the closest ones. This adaptation can occur gradually: sometimes foreign words for some time retain sounds in their pronunciation that are absent in this language - as, for example, in the German words Chance, Restorant borrowed from the "prestigious" French language (both words are pronounced "in the French manner » with a nasal vowel). In a borrowed from the same French Russian word jury also pronounced missing in Russian sound - soft and. In the word summary before the final spelling e a consonant sound is pronounced, intermediate between hard and soft (the so-called 3rd softening). Until recently, a similar sound was pronounced, for example, in the word Cafe; now in this word, as in many others that came from French earlier ( pince-nez, scarf etc.), a hard consonant is pronounced. Thus, adaptation to the phonological system of the borrowing language takes place. The next stage of this process of mastering a foreign word is to replace hard consonants before spelling e to soft ones. With a hard consonant, for example, words are pronounced neckline,phoneme,timbre,pace etc.; with soft - more "mastered" Russian words topic,decree,flight,theatre,telephone,safe etc. Many words allow fluctuations in pronunciation (i.e. are "halfway"): a computer,dean,mayonnaise,awning etc.

In addition to phonetic, the borrowed word also undergoes grammatical (morphological) adaptation. The nature of this adaptation depends on how the external appearance of the borrowed word corresponds to the morphological models of the borrowing language. Words like sport or railway station, easily entered the Russian language, immediately falling into the morphological class of masculine words of the 2nd declension (which includes the words table, house etc.). But, for example, the word shampoo, having got into the Russian language, did not immediately acquire a stable category of the gender, having as a sample both words of the masculine gender of the type horse or the fire, and feminine words like rubbish or sagebrush; respectively, the form of creativity. case was like shampoo, and shampoo(subsequently, the masculine gender was assigned to this word). It is precisely because of the existence of a powerful mechanism for assimilation to existing models that such resistance from the Russian language meets the notorious masculine gender of the word prescribed by the norm coffee, which is automatically likened to words of the middle gender - such as field or grief(4).

Words of Greek origin -ma- such as problem or system, - in Russian belong to the feminine gender, since the final -a(which was part of the stem in Greek) is interpreted as an ending inherent in Russian feminine words. In the German language, where the relationship between the ending of a word and its morphological gender is much less pronounced and thus there is no pressure from the system of the borrowing language in this place, all words ascending to Greek words on -ma, are neuter - like their Greek counterparts (das Problem, das System, das Thema, etc.); in French and Italian, where there is no middle gender, such words are masculine (10).

Of the stream of foreign words that floods the language in times of social upheaval and scientific and technological revolutions, only a certain part is retained. The process of adaptation of foreign words, controlled, like all linguistic processes, primarily by intralinguistic factors, can be regulated to some extent by extralinguistic forces - at least, the possibility of human and society intervention in this process is greater than in the case when speech is about phonetic and especially grammatical changes. In the language community there are always conservative forces, preventing the penetration into the language of "clogging" foreign words - as well as all innovations in general (changes in pronunciation, including stress, shifts in meaning, penetration into the literary language of jargon, professionalism, etc.). The defense of a language from foreign words usually also has a pronounced ideological connotation. However, regardless of the ideological aspirations that brought them to life, such conservative forces objectively perform a very important social function of maintaining a natural balance between the old and the new, which is necessary for the normal functioning of the language (11).

For example, the authority of A.I. Solzhenitsyn, who is an opponent of the use of foreign words and proposes to replace them with words of Russian origin, may turn out to be great enough to have some influence on the fate of certain foreign words. Sometimes the language community even takes administrative measures. So, in France, in order to fight, first of all, with anglicisms, a list of approximately 3,000 words was recently introduced, limiting the possibility of using foreign words in created languages. French texts intended for the media (television, advertising, etc.)

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