Geological structure and relief of Europe. Geological structure and relief of Europe

Geography of Europe
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From a strict geographical point of view, Europe is not actually an independent continent, but is part of the continent of Eurasia, which also includes Asia. However, Europe is still often seen as a continent in its own right.

The European continent, with access to a large number of bodies of water, is separated from Asia Ural mountains on the territory of Russia, as well as the Caspian and Black Seas. The continent is separated from Africa by the Mediterranean Sea.

Mountains and plains of Europe

Alps

Located in south-central Europe, these mountains stretch over 1,100 kilometers in length, starting from the coast of southern France (near Monaco), through Switzerland, northern Italy and Austria, then through Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and ending in Albania off the Adriatic coast.

Known for its spectacular scenery, glaciers, lakes and valleys, as well as some of the best skiing conditions on the planet, the Alps are home to many rivers and tributaries, including the Danube, Po, Rhine, and Rhone.

The highest point is Mont Blanc (4,807 m).

Apennines

The Apennine Mountains, where almost all of Italy's rivers originate, including the Arno, Tiber, and Volturno, are 1,350 km long, they are the core of Italy, and stretch along the entire length of the Apennine (Italian) Peninsula, ending on the island of Sicily.

The highest point is Corno Grande (2,914 m).

Balkan mountains

These mountains begin in Serbia and extend throughout Bulgaria. Some spurs of this mountain system pass through the territory of Albania, Greece, and Macedonia.

The most famous mountain in this mountain system is Olympus, the highest and most impressive mountain in Greece, its height is 2,918 m.

Great Hungarian Plain (Alfeld)

Located in the south-eastern part of Europe, and surrounded by mountains, this plain contains several small forests and several large meadows. Its average height above sea level is only 100 meters, and conditions here are often dry, so snow flows from the Alpine and Carpathian mountains in winter are of great importance for the plain.

Carpathians

This mountain range, located in Eastern Europe, is the source of several rivers: Dniester, Tisza, and Vistula. They form a natural border between Slovakia and southern Poland, and extend far south into Ukraine and Romania.

The highest point is Gerlachovsky Štit, in northern Slovakia, height – 2,655 m.

Meseta

The Meseta (also called the Iberian Meseta, or Castilian Highlands) covers almost half of the entire territory of Spain. This high plateau is located at a distance of 700 m above sea level in the north, and 600 m above sea level in the south.

The plateau is surrounded by several mountain ranges, including the Cantabrian Mountains, the Sierra de Gata, and Sierra de Guadarrama in the north, and the Sierra Morena and Sierra Nevada in the south. These mountains separate Meseta from the Costa Verde, the Ebro Valley, the Mediterranean Sea, and Andalusia.

Pyrenees

The Pyrenees stretches from the Bay of Biscay (in the west) to the Gulf of Lyon (in the east).
To the south of the mountains is Spain, to the north is France, and inside the mountain range itself is Andorra.
NASA Images
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These mountains form the natural border between France and Spain, and stretch over 400 km in length, from the Bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean Sea. The highest point is Aneto Peak (3,404 m).

Scandinavian mountains

This jagged mountain system stretches along the eastern border of Norway and the western part of Sweden. The highest point is Kebnekaise (2,123 m).

Central European Plain

The fertile lands of the Central European Plain extend north and northeast of the Alps, all the way to the Baltic Sea, and into Denmark, southern Finland, Norway, and Sweden. To the east, the plain extends to Russian territory and beyond, with a total length of over 4,000 km.

These lands are generally flat, with no big amount hills, this also includes the Central Russian Upland. Agriculture is widespread on the plain, and all around there is a large number of agricultural communities.

Massif Central

This mountain range in southwestern France is the source of the Allier, Creuse, and Loire. Its approximate size is 85,001 sq. km, the highest point is Puy de Sancy (1,885 m).

Rivers of Europe

Hundreds of rivers and their tributaries flow across the European continent. The longest of them (over 900 km long), as well as the most famous and remarkable, will be listed below.

Volga

The Volga is the largest river in the European part of Russia. It flows through central Russia and is considered the national river of Russia. Its length is 3,692 km.

Dnieper

Rising in southwestern Russia, the river flows south through Belarus, then southeast through Ukraine, before emptying into the Black Sea. The total length is 2,285 km.

Originating in southwestern Russia, south of Moscow, the river flows southeast to the Volga River before turning sharply west to empty into the Sea of ​​Azov. The total length is 1,969 km.

Danube

Originating in the Black Forest region of Germany, this river flows through Central Europe, in countries such as Austria, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia, Slovenia, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia. The river forms the border between Romania and Bulgaria, then flows through the territory of Romania into the Black Sea.

The river is 2,850 km long and is one of the most significant trade waterways on the continent.

Loire

Recognized as France's longest river, the navigable Loire River begins at the foot of the Massif Central, then flows north and west along central France before emptying into the Bay of Biscay. Length – 1,020 km.

Audra

Rising in the mountains of eastern Bohemia, the river flows west and north through the southern central part Poland, and as a result flows into the Baltic Sea. Length – 912 km.

Italy's longest river begins in the Alpine peaks, flows from west to east along northern Italy, and ends in the Adriatic Sea. Its length is 652 km.

Rhine

Originating in the mountains of southeastern Switzerland, this legendary river flows west to form Switzerland's northeastern border with Germany, then heads due north into western Germany, where it forms that country's border with France, and then cuts through the Netherlands, ending in the North Sea.

Numerous tributaries of the river flow in all directions, the total length of the river is 1,319 km.

Rona

Originating high in the Swiss Alps, this fast river flows through Lake Geneva, then heads south through southeastern France, before emptying into the Mediterranean Sea.

Small tributaries of the river flow in all directions, the total length is 485 km.

Tacho

The Tagus River rises in the central highlands of Spain, then flows southwest through Portugal, then south to Lisbon, where it empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Its length is 1,007 km.

Shannon

Rising in the north-west of Ireland, the river flows through several lakes before turning west and eventually emptying into the Atlantic Ocean. Length – 370 km.

Elbe

Originating in the Czech Republic, the Elbe River flows north through Germany and into the North Sea near the city of Cuxhaven. Its length is 1,165 km.

The video lesson allows you to get interesting and detailed information about the countries of Western Europe. From the lesson you will learn about the composition of Western Europe, the characteristics of the countries of the region, their geographical location, nature, climate, place in this subregion. The teacher will tell you in detail about the main country not only of this territory, but also of the entire Foreign Europe - Germany.

Topic: Regional characteristics of the world. Foreign Europe

Lesson: Western Europe

Rice. 1. Map of subregions of Europe. Western Europe is highlighted in blue. ()

Western Europe- cultural and geographical region, which includes 9 states located in the west of the region.

Compound:

1. Germany.

2. France.

3. Belgium.

4. Netherlands.

5. Switzerland.

6. Austria.

7. Luxembourg.

8. Liechtenstein.

Executive power in the country belongs to the federal government, the president performs mainly representative functions. In essence, the Federal Chancellor is in charge of management.

Rice. 3. Federal Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel against the background of the national flag. ()

Modern Germany is the main economy of Europe, the fifth economy in the world (GDP is about 3.1 trillion dollars). The country is an active player in the modern world, a member of the EU, NATO, G7 and other organizations.

Thanks to his economic development, Germany attracts a huge number of migrants, it ranks first in foreign Europe in terms of the total number of immigrants.

The natural conditions of the country are varied. The surface rises mainly from north to south. According to the nature of the relief, there are 4 main elements in it: the North German Lowland, the Central German Mountains. Bavarian plateau and Alps. The relief of the country was influenced by glaciations and marine transgressions.

Main resources of Germany: coal, rock salt, iron ore, soil resources.

By volume industrial production Germany is second only to the USA, China, India and Japan. Germany's role in international geographical division labor is determined by its industry, specializing in the production of high-quality products. In general, the share of manufacturing industries in the industrial structure is very high (more than 90%), the share of extractive industries is declining, and the share of knowledge-intensive industries is growing.

The largest TNCs in Germany:

7. Volkswagen, etc.

Germany meets more than half of its needs through imports (oil, gas, coal). The main role in the fuel base is played by oil and gas, and the share of coal is about 30%.

Electricity generation structure:

64% - at thermal power plants,

4% - for hydroelectric power stations,

32% - at nuclear power plants.

Coal-fired thermal power plants operate in the Ruhr and Saar basins, in port cities; natural gas power plants operate in northern Germany; fuel oil power plants operate in oil refining centers; other thermal power plants operate on mixed fuel.

Ferrous metallurgy- one of the most important branches of specialization in Germany, but is currently in crisis. The main factories are concentrated in the Ruhr and the Lower Rhine; there are also in the Saarland and in the eastern states of Germany. Conversion and rolling plants are located throughout the country.

Non-ferrous metallurgy- works mainly on imported and recycled raw materials. In terms of aluminum smelting, Germany is second only to Norway in foreign Europe. The main factories are in North Rhine-Westphalia, Hamburg and Bavaria.

Mechanical engineering and metalworking- Germany’s branch of specialization in the international geographical division of labor, accounting for up to half industrial products and export. Largest centers: Munich, Nuremberg. Mannheim, Berlin, Leipzig, Hamburg. Bavaria is a leader in the electrical engineering industry. The automotive industry, marine shipbuilding, optical-mechanical, and aerospace industries are highly developed.

Chemical industry represented, first of all, by the production of fine organic synthesis, the production of medicines, etc. Chemical industry especially developed in the western lands, in the east it found itself in a state of crisis.

Agriculture- uses about 50% of the territory; The industry's contribution to the country's GDP is 1%, more than 60% of all production comes from livestock farming, where cattle breeding and pig farming stand out. The main grain crops are wheat, rye, oats, and barley. Germany is completely self-sufficient in grain. Potatoes and beets are also grown; along the valleys of the Rhine and its tributaries - viticulture, gardening, tobacco growing.

Transport. In terms of the density of transport routes, Germany ranks among the first in the world; The basis of the transport network is railways. In the total cargo turnover, the main role belongs to road transport (60%), then railway (20%), inland waterway (15%) and pipeline. External maritime transport and air transport are of great importance, playing a major role in external relations countries.

Rice. 4. Station in Berlin

Non-production sphere represented in Germany, as in a post-industrial country, with a wide range of various types activities: education, healthcare, management, finance. Eight German banks are among the 50 largest banks in the world. Frankfurt am Main - fast growing Finance center Germany. Germany is one of the leading countries in terms of tourist attendance.

Rice. 5. Tourists in Dresden

The most powerful state in Germany from an economic point of view is Bavaria. Germany's main economic partners: EU countries, USA, Russia.

Homework

Topic 6, P. 3

1. What are the features geographical location Western Europe?

2. What are the features of the geographical location of Germany?

Bibliography

Main

1. Geography. A basic level of. 10-11 grades: Textbook for educational institutions/ A.P. Kuznetsov, E.V. Kim. - 3rd ed., stereotype. - M.: Bustard, 2012. - 367 p.

2. Economic and social geography of the world: Textbook. for 10th grade educational institutions / V.P. Maksakovsky. - 13th ed. - M.: Education, JSC "Moscow Textbooks", 2005. - 400 p.

3. Atlas with a set of outline maps for grade 10. Economic and social geography of the world. - Omsk: FSUE "Omsk Cartographic Factory", 2012. - 76 p.

Additional

1. Economic and social geography of Russia: Textbook for universities / Ed. prof. A.T. Khrushchev. - M.: Bustard, 2001. - 672 p.: ill., map.: color. on

Encyclopedias, dictionaries, reference books and statistical collections

1. Geography: a reference book for high school students and applicants to universities. - 2nd ed., rev. and revision - M.: AST-PRESS SCHOOL, 2008. - 656 p.

Literature for preparing for the State Exam and the Unified State Exam

1. Thematic control in geography. Economic and social geography of the world. 10th grade / E.M. Ambartsumova. - M.: Intellect-Center, 2009. - 80 p.

2. The most complete edition typical options real tasks of the Unified State Exam: 2010. Geography / Comp. Yu.A. Solovyova. - M.: Astrel, 2010. - 221 p.

3. The optimal bank of tasks for preparing students. Unified State Exam 2012. Geography: Textbook / Comp. EM. Ambartsumova, S.E. Dyukova. - M.: Intellect-Center, 2012. - 256 p.

4. The most complete edition of standard versions of real Unified State Examination tasks: 2010. Geography / Comp. Yu.A. Solovyova. - M.: AST: Astrel, 2010. - 223 p.

5. Geography. Diagnostic work in the format of the Unified State Exam 2011. - M.: MTsNMO, 2011. - 72 p.

6. Unified State Exam 2010. Geography. Collection of tasks / Yu.A. Solovyova. - M.: Eksmo, 2009. - 272 p.

7. Geography tests: 10th grade: to the textbook by V.P. Maksakovsky “Economic and social geography of the world. 10th grade” / E.V. Baranchikov. - 2nd ed., stereotype. - M.: Publishing house "Exam", 2009. - 94 p.

8. Textbook on geography. Tests and practical assignments in geography / I.A. Rodionova. - M.: Moscow Lyceum, 1996. - 48 p.

9. The most complete edition of standard versions of real Unified State Examination tasks: 2009. Geography / Comp. Yu.A. Solovyova. - M.: AST: Astrel, 2009. - 250 p.

10. Unified State Exam 2009. Geography. Universal materials for preparing students / FIPI - M.: Intellect-Center, 2009. - 240 p.

11. Geography. Answers on questions. Oral exam, theory and practice / V.P. Bondarev. - M.: Publishing house "Exam", 2003. - 160 p.

12. Unified State Exam 2010. Geography: thematic training tasks / O.V. Chicherina, Yu.A. Solovyova. - M.: Eksmo, 2009. - 144 p.

13. Unified State Exam 2012. Geography: Model exam options: 31 options / Ed. V.V. Barabanova. - M.: National Education, 2011. - 288 p.

14. Unified State Exam 2011. Geography: Model exam options: 31 options / Ed. V.V. Barabanova. - M.: National Education, 2010. - 280 p.

Materials on the Internet

1. Federal Institute of Pedagogical Measurements ().

2. Federal portal Russian Education ().

what is the terrain like in Western Europe?

1. plain
2. Western European
3. Western Europe occupies the western narrowed part of the Eurasian continent, washed mainly by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean and only the north of the Scandinavian Peninsula by the waters of the Arctic Ocean.

   The territory of the subregion lies within tectonic structures of different ages: Precambrian, Caledonian, Hercynian and the youngest - Cenozoic. As a result of the complex geological history of the formation of Europe, four large orographic belts were formed within the subregion, successively replacing each other in the direction from north to south (plateaus and highlands of Fennoscandia, the Central European Plain, the middle mountains of Central Europe and the alpine highlands and middle mountains occupying its southern part).

   The flat tops of the Scandinavian mountains are smoothed by a glacier, for a long time who were in charge here. Mountain slopes and coastal cliffs also bear traces of glacial processing: they seem to be covered with scars. Narrow bays and fjords jut deep into the land.
   Along the entire southern coast of the Baltic Sea there is a strip of lowlands: the Central German, Greater Poland. The East European Plain is the largest flat area in Europe

   Western European countries:
   Austria Belgium UK Germany Ireland Liechtenstein Luxembourg
   Monaco Netherlands France Switzerland

   From the Atlantic coast and almost to the East European Plain stretches a belt of middle mountains, the height of which does not exceed 1900 m. A strip of deep faults in the earth's crust is occupied by the Rhine River valley. It divides a single mountain range into the Black Forest and the Vosges. The Vosges is adjacent to the folded Jura Mountains. A series of lakes, such as Lake Geneva and Lake Neuchâtel, separate these mountains from the majestic Alps, which stretch in a huge arc across the territories of several countries. The Alps are the youngest European mountains, with snow-capped peaks, glacial valleys, glaciers and sharp peaks. The highest peak in Europe, Mont Blanc, is located here.

   A continuation of the Alpine-Himalayan mountain belt are the Carpathians, whose outlines resemble a horseshoe. In general, these are medium-altitude mountains, with slopes covered with coniferous and beech forests. Their highest part, the Tatra Mountains, lies in Slovakia. The highest point of the Carpathians is also located here - Mount Gerlakhovsky Shtit (2655 m).

   The most significant decreases are concentrated on the coast of the Netherlands. This part of the European Peninsula is located in a zone of constant subsidence earth's crust. And if it weren’t for the dam blocking the IJsselmeer Bay, the capital of the Netherlands, Amsterdam, would be under water, as it is below sea level. The picture is similar in the Padan Lowland: here there is a threat of flooding of the lower reaches of the Po River valley, as well as the city of Venice.

   Mountains Balkan Peninsula- Dinara, Stara Planina, Rila, Pirin, Pind are basically the same high altitudes However, some parts of them have an alpine type of relief. The famous Olympus in Greece is also low (up to 2917 m), but for this country it is a truly outstanding peak, claiming to be the abode of the gods. The Crimean mountains on the peninsula of the same name hang like a wall over the southern coast, but from the north it is only a gently rising plain.

   A chain of low Apennine mountains stretches along the entire Apennine Peninsula. Here, off the southern coast of Italy, rises a dilapidated cone active volcano Vesuvius. On the island of Sicily there is another active volcano in Europe - Etna.

   The Pyrenees Mountains seem to cut off the small Iberian Peninsula from big Europe. The most significant massifs here are the Cantabrian Mountains and the Meseta Plateau.

From the shores of the Atlantic Ocean to the watershed of the Odra and Vistula, within a huge triangle that includes the territory of France (excluding the Alps and the Pyrenees), the southern part of Belgium, the middle parts of the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, lying between the plain and the foothills of the Alps, the western part of Czechoslovakia and Central Poland, there are some common features nature. Their features create a mosaic relief, formed on the basis of Paleozoic folded structures, reworked by later processes, and the influence of the Atlantic Ocean. Flat-topped mountain ranges, nowhere reaching a height of 2000 m, low plateaus and depressions with hilly or stepped relief, adjust the temperature and precipitation coming from the Atlantic, creating differences in the types of soils and vegetation, as well as in the conditions of economic activity. The diversity of landscapes, due to differences in height, steepness and exposure of slopes, the degree of isolation of depressions, and position in relation to the Atlantic, is a feature of this region. It is also characterized by a variety of natural resources, a long-standing, albeit uneven population and development of the territory, a high degree of change in nature economic activity.

In the west, within France, two massifs stand out - Central and Armorican, separated by depressions, which are expressed in relief in the form of flat lowlands or hilly plains. The Massif Central, or the Central Plateau of France, the most extensive and highest in the extra-alpine part of Central Europe, is a vast dome-shaped uplift composed of highly folded metamorphosed rocks and complicated by later faults and recent volcanism. In the Neogene, the central part of the massif

Deep cracks crossed in various directions, volcanic eruptions occurred along them and powerful stratovolcanoes rose, the activity of which was evident until the beginning of the Anthropocene. Volcanoes form chains or rise in isolated massifs. The summit of the Mont Dore volcano (1885 m) is the highest point not only of the Massif Central, but of the entire region. In the south and southwest, crystalline rocks are covered with strata of Jurassic limestone, which make up the vast Kos plateau, known for the widespread development of karst phenomena and typical karst topography. Its surface is pitted with deep craters and quarries and cluttered with limestone fragments. This area, almost everywhere deserted and monotonous, is used mainly for pasture. The eastern and southeastern margins of the Massif Central are raised along faults to a height of 1700 m and are called the Cevennes. From the Mediterranean Sea, they give the impression of a high and highly dissected mountain range with steep stepped slopes cut by deep valleys.

The Armorican massif in northwestern France did not experience such intense uplift and fragmentation in the Neogene as the Central one. Repeated subsidence fragmented it into separate areas, separated by vast depressions.

Between the Massif Central, the coast of the Bay of Biscay and the northern foot of the Pyrenees lies the Garonne Lowland, or Aquitaine Basin, composed of sedimentary deposits of Paleogene and Neogene-Quaternary age, which are products of the destruction of the Pyrenees Mountains. In the southern part of the lowland, deep river valleys and ravines cut the surface into a series of asymmetrical plateaus. Towards the north, the surface of Aquitaine decreases and becomes increasingly flat. Along the coast of the Bay of Biscay, to the south of the Gironde estuary, which cuts deep into the land for many kilometers along a straight, low-lying coastline, stretches the Landes - a strip of sand dunes covered with pine forests, among which lagoon lakes shine. Until the middle of the 19th century. the dunes remained mobile, but were then secured by artificial plantations of maritime pine.

To the north of Aquitaine lies a lowland through which the Loire River flows. The crystalline rocks of the Armorican massif lie shallow there, in some places they are covered by marine sediments and river alluvium, but in some areas they come to the surface.

In the north, the Loire Lowland connects with the North French, or Paris Basin, an area with varied terrain. The Paris Basin is a depression with gradually rising edges, filled with marine sediments of Cretaceous and Paleogene age, with the youngest rocks lying in the center of the depression, and increasingly older rocks coming to the surface towards the outskirts. This structural feature is well expressed in the eastern part of the area. The Seine and its tributaries flow through the Paris Basin, dissecting its surface. The southern and western parts of the basin are characterized by hilly terrain, in the eastern part cuesta ridges are pronounced; they extend concentrically with respect to the outskirts of Paris, towards which their long, gentle slopes face. The ridges are composed of hard carbonate rocks of Jurassic, Cretaceous and Paleogene age. The most clearly visible in the relief is the cuesta Ile-de-France, closest to Paris, and the Champagne ridge, composed of limestone and white chalk. The Argonne sandstone ridge rises even further to the east.

Between the cuesta plateaus there are wide depressions filled with loose sandy-clayey sediments and irrigated by large rivers. The surface of cuesta ridges, as a rule, is almost devoid of watercourses, weakly dissected and karstified, and the scalloped edges are cut by erosion.

In the east, the Paris Basin continues with the Lorraine Cueste Plateau. The cuestas of Lorraine are composed of Jurassic limestones and Triassic sandstones, in some places they reach a height of 700 m, they are dissected by deep valleys of tributaries of the Rhine, Moselle and Meuse.

To the east, the ruggedness of the relief increases. The surface along the Rhine is especially varied. In the south, the river flows along the bottom of the wide Upper Rhine Rift, which in the Paleogene was occupied by a sea bay, which subsequently closed and dried. Marine and lagoon-lacustrine deposits at the bottom of the rift, which in relief corresponds to the Upper Rhine Plain, are overlain by loess-like deposits and Rhine alluvium. On both sides of the Upper Rhine Plain rise asymmetrical massifs - the Vosges and the Black Forest. With steep step-fault slopes they face the Rhine, and to the west and east they descend gently. The massifs are higher in the southern part (up to 1400 m). To the north, as folded Paleozoic complexes disappear under the cover of horizontal strata of Triassic sandstones, they gradually decrease, while the highly dissected relief of dome-shaped massifs and deep valleys is replaced by the relief of monotonous plateaus.

North of the Upper Rhine Plain, the Rhine flows within the Rhine Slate Mountains, or Rhine Slate Massif. Its flat surface, composed of Devonian crystalline schists, was dissected by cracks in the Neogene and experienced general uplift and volcanism. On the monotonous surface of the ancient peneplain, dome-shaped hills formed - the remains of ancient volcanoes - and crater lakes - maars - of a regular round shape. The uplift created deep epigenetic valleys of the Rhine and its tributaries. They are cut into the surface to a depth of 200 m, and their steep stepped slopes sometimes rise almost to the water. In the recent geological past, the Rhine carried its waters to the south, but subsidence to the north of the Rhine Shale massif in the area of ​​​​the so-called Cologne Bay and faults that crossed the massif in the middle part contributed to a change in the direction of the river flow and the formation of the modern Rhine valley.

East of the Black Forest, Paleozoic structures are submerged beneath Triassic and Jurassic marine sediments. There, in the basin of the right tributaries of the Rhine - the Neckar and the Main, is the Swabian-Franconian cuesta region. The relief clearly shows two cuesta ridges, facing the northwest with a steep ledge and extending from southwest to northeast from the Neckar towards the Main. The northern cuesta, no more than 500 m high, is composed of Triassic sandstones, its steep edge is strongly dissected, and in places it breaks up into separate hills. The second, higher (up to 1000 m) cuesta ridge consists of Jurassic limestones and is very clearly expressed in the relief, especially in the southwest, where it is called the Swabian Jura, or the Swabian Alb.

To the north, two horst massifs rise with sharply defined fault slopes and undulating peneplain surfaces. These are the narrow and long Thuringian Forest (982 m), strongly dissected by river erosion, and the more massive Harz with the Brocken peak (1142 m).

To the east rises the highest in Central Europe after the Central Massif, the Bohemian Massif. It consists of elevated outskirts and an internal, relatively low part. The northwestern edge of the massif - the Ore Mountains - is raised to a height of more than 1200 m. Low volcanoes rose along the fault lines in the Neogene, at the foot of which there are outlets of thermal and mineralized waters. The northeastern edge of the Bohemian Massif is formed by the Sudeten Mountains with the peak Snezka (1602 m). They do not represent a single ridge, but break up into small blocky massifs and basins separating them. In the southwest, along the edge of the Bohemian Massif, a whole system of horsts rises - the Bohemian Forest, Šumava and the Bavarian Forest. On all the marginal ridges of the Bohemian Massif, especially in the Sudetes and the Bohemian Forest, there was glaciation, traces of which are well preserved in the relief in the form of carts, trough valleys and glacial lakes. The inner part of the Czech Massif is lowered in comparison with the outskirts. The lowest section (no more than 200 m), called the Polabskaya plain, lies along the course of the Laba (upper Elbe).

The southeastern part of the massif is occupied by the Bohemian-Moravian Upland, about 800 m high. Most of it is composed of Precambrian crystalline rocks, but the eastern margin. covered with karst Mesozoic limestones. This is an area of ​​Moravian karst known for its caves, wells and other forms of karst relief. Sites of prehistoric man have been discovered in caves.

To the north of the Bohemian Massif, between the Ore Mountains, the Thuringian Forest and the Harz, lies a small basin opening to the north. This is the Thuringian basin, analogous in relief to the Paris and Swabian-Franconian ones, with cuesta relief developed by the Saale River and its tributaries in the strata of Triassic and Cretaceous deposits.

In the east, within Poland, the region ends with the low Central Polish Upland, lying on the watershed of the Odra and Vistula.

The different ages, diversity of structures and petrographic composition of the rocks determined the wealth of minerals. Their deposits are associated both with crystalline and volcanic rocks of mountain ranges, and with sedimentary deposits of different ages.

In the depths of ancient crystalline massifs lie ores of non-ferrous and rare metals. Their largest deposits are lead-zinc in the Ore Mountains, polymetallic and copper in the Sudetes and lead-zinc in Srednepolska. hills.

Of the ore minerals of sedimentary origin, the most important is the iron ore of Lorraine, contained in strata of Jurassic limestone close to the surface, which facilitates its extraction. Low iron content (only 35%) and phosphorus impurities reduce the quality of the ore, but its total reserves are very large. Along the way, limestone is mined and used as a flux.

In the extreme south of France, on the Mediterranean coast, in the marine sediments of the Rhone delta and in Mesozoic limestones, there are bauxite deposits. The very name of this ore comes from the name of the town of Beau in the Rhone delta, where it was first found.

The largest coal deposits in foreign Europe were formed in the sedimentary deposits of foothill troughs and internal depressions. Among them, the first place is occupied by the Ruhr Basin on the northern slope of the Rhine Slate Mountains, in the valley of the Ruhr River. The productive coal-bearing strata of this basin lie relatively close to the surface and are convenient for development.

The second most important coal basin in foreign Europe - the Upper Silesian - is located on the Silesian Upland, mainly in Poland, its southern edge extends into Czechoslovakia. The coals of this basin lie close to the surface and are easily accessible for development. There are also significant reserves of coal in the carboniferous deposits of the foothills of the Ardennes basin, within France and partly in Belgium.

Many areas are characterized by outcrops of mineral and thermal waters along fault lines and in places of former volcanism. Of particular importance are the waters of the Auvergne in the Massif Central of France, the healing springs of Czechoslovakia, known for several hundred years, emerging at the southern foot of the Ore Mountains, and the mineral springs of the Black Forest; a large thermal area is located in the Sudetes.

The region is wide open to the Atlantic Ocean and is influenced by westerly transport of air masses throughout the year. When moving inland, the Atlantic air experiences a transformation. This process is expressed in a natural increase in the continentality of the climate when moving from west to east. But climatic conditions change not only with distance from the Atlantic; they are influenced by relief and slope exposure. The climate of the basins is, as a rule, more continental than the climate of the mountain ranges. This is reflected in large annual temperature amplitudes and a decrease in precipitation.

Winter in the western, coastal part is very mild, with an average temperature of +6, +7 ° C (Brest, Bordeaux); summer is not hot. On the Brittany Peninsula, the average temperature of the warmest month is no more than + 17°C, further south, in Bordeaux, + 21, + 22°C. Precipitation falls throughout the year mainly in the form of rain, with a maximum in winter. Annual precipitation on the coast of Brittany reaches 1500 mm, on the Aquitaine lowland it decreases to 800 mm, but on the western slopes of the Massif Central the amount of precipitation increases again. In Brittany there are no more than 20 days with frost a year, in Aquitaine - 20-40 days. Precipitation in the form of snow is rare.

A change in climatic conditions to the east can be observed already in the Paris region, where the climate takes on a certain hint of continentality. The average temperature of the coldest month in Paris is +2, +3° C, the warmest is about + 19° C. The amount of precipitation drops to 700 mm, and snow occurs on average 10-20 days a year. On the Lorraine plateau due to the significant height and eastern position The average winter temperature is around 0°C and almost every winter there are prolonged frosts, and on the highest peaks of the cuesta ridges there is snow for up to 40 days a year. Approximately the same conditions are typical for the Ardennes. In the Massif Central and Vosges, winter with frost and snow lasts up to three months; summers are warm, with strong thunderstorms that cause river floods.

The south of France has the warmest areas with mild, frost-free and snowless winters and hot summers. Along the submeridional Rhone valley, the influence of the south penetrates far to the north, and the climate of the Rhone Lowland is much warmer than the climate of neighboring areas at the same latitudes. But cold air masses penetrate far to the south along the Rhone. This happens especially often in winter, when a cold downward wind, the mistral, blows from the north down the valley, causing temperatures to drop all the way to the southern coast of France.

An example of a mild and warm continental climate is the climate of the Upper Rhine Plain. Along with the climate of the Aquitaine Lowland, it is considered the most favorable for agriculture in all of Central Europe. Winter there is relatively mild, but there are frosts down to -20°C, with the average temperature of the coldest month being about 0°C. An early and warm spring is replaced by a rather hot summer with an average temperature of about +20° C. Precipitation, the annual amount of which is about 600 mm, falls mainly in the spring and in the first half of summer, which is favorable for agriculture.

Continental climate in still to a greater extent expressed in the interior of the Bohemian Massif and in the Thuringian Basin. In Prague, the average temperature in January is slightly below 0° C, in July +19° C. The amount of precipitation is only 500 mm, in winter a significant part of it falls in the form of snow.

On the western slopes of the mountain ranges, even in the eastern regions of the region, about 1000 mm of precipitation falls per year, and in some cases more. On the eastern slopes their number decreases sharply. The temperature in the mountains in both summer and winter is relatively low, for example in the Harz the average January temperature is -3.5° C, the average July temperature is from -f-10°C to + 1°C. On the slopes of the northern marginal mountain ranges, especially at their peaks, climatic conditions are harsh. Sharp, humid westerly winds constantly blow, fog and thick clouds are frequent. In winter there is heavy snowfall, which lasts up to six months a year. This climate is typical for the Harz and Sudetenland. But even in the Black Forest, located much further south and west, winter lasts up to four months and there is snow on the peaks even when field work begins on the Upper Rhine Plain and many plants bloom.

The ruggedness of the relief, the abundance of precipitation, and snow reserves in the mountains favor the development of the river network. Some rivers flow from source to mouth within the region, and their regime depends entirely on its characteristics. These are such large rivers of France as the Seine (776 km) and the Loire (1012 km) with their tributaries, the Saône, and some tributaries of the Rhine. Most of these rivers have a uniform flow, somewhat complicated to the east by melting snow in the mountain ranges. The rivers are of great transport importance and are accessible for navigation throughout the year.

Other rivers begin in the highlands outside the region and flow within its borders only in the middle and lower reaches. These are the Rhine and Rhone, which originate in the Alps, and the Garonne, whose origins are in the Pyrenees. Floods on the Garonne occur at all times of the year, but they reach particular strength in the spring as a result of melting snow in the mountains and in the fall due to heavy rainfall. Such floods come and go very quickly.

Almost all the major rivers of the Central European Plain and many of their tributaries begin in the eastern part of the region. The upper Elbe (Laba) flows from the Sudetes, and its largest tributary, the Vltava, flows from the Bohemian Massif. On the plateau of the Swabian and Franconian Jura, the right tributaries of the Rhine - the Neckar and Main, and some tributaries of the upper Danube - originate. The Weser flows from the Thuringian Forest mountains, the Oder flows from the southeastern edge of the Sudetenland, a large tributary of which, the Warta, begins on the Central Polish Upland. Most of these rivers in the upper reaches are mountainous in nature and have significant hydropower reserves. Maximum water consumption occurs in spring; it is associated with snow melting, but there are also short-term rises in river levels during rains.

Many river systems are interconnected by canals, which increases their navigability. Particularly large canals connect the Rhine with the Seine system, the Loire with the Saone and the Main with tributaries of the upper Danube.

The endless impenetrable forests that in ancient times covered the entire territory under consideration were called Hercynian forests by the Romans. These forests have long been an obstacle to penetration from Southern Europe into its central and northern parts. Only a few areas of continuous forest cover were apparently always treeless. These are small areas covered with loess deposits in the Upper Rhine and Polabian plains and in the Thuringian basin. Chernozem-like soils formed on the loess and steppe-type vegetation existed. These areas were the first to be plowed.

The modern picture of vegetation cover is very far from what it was several centuries ago. The continuously growing population and the plowing of more and more new lands led to a strong reduction in forests. At present, natural forests have been preserved mainly on the slopes of mountain ranges, and even then not on all of them. The gentle slopes and low altitude of the mountains have never presented any obstacles to settlement. Therefore, the upper limit of settlements and cultivated vegetation lies high. The upper parts of the mountains, above the forest line, have long been used by people as summer pastures. Centuries-old grazing of livestock has led to the damage and destruction of forests and to a decrease in the upper limit of their distribution by an average of 150-200 m. In many areas, forests are being artificially restored. But instead of broad-leaved species, less demanding conifers of a uniform species composition are usually planted.

The Atlantic coast south of Brittany is generally devoid of forest vegetation. It is dominated by heathers, which also cover the hills of the Armorican massif.

In the south - in Languedoc and the Rhone lowlands - Mediterranean types of vegetation and soils appear. Along the Rhone Lowland they penetrate quite far to the north and are found on the lower parts of the slopes of the Cevennes. The most characteristic of these areas are shrub thickets of the garigue type, consisting of cistus, thyme, lavender and other aromatic shrubs. There are also thickets of evergreen oaks, which, however, are heavily cut down almost everywhere.

The lowlands and rolling plains from France to Czechoslovakia are generally densely populated and cultivated. In place of beech and winter oak forests, there are arable lands, gardens, as well as artificial tree plantations along roads, around populated areas and along the borders of plowed areas. These artificial plantings are especially characteristic of the plains and lower parts of the mountain ranges of France, where they are known as bocages. The bocage landscape is characteristic of the Paris Basin, the Loire Lowlands and the lower slopes of the Massif Central. In Aquitaine, instead of oak and chestnut forests, planted forests of maritime pine appeared. Particularly large forested areas on the coastal dune strip called Landes. Pine trees began to be planted there in the last century to stabilize the sands. Although Aquitaine's pine forests suffer greatly from fires, it remains the most forested region in France.

Cultivated vegetation and human settlements rise up the mountain slopes, displacing broad-leaved forests. Particularly densely populated and deforested are the areas with highly dissected relief - the Black Forest, Vosges, Harz and Ore Mountains, where gentle ridges alternate with wide valleys. Upper limit settlements rises to 1000 m and even higher. Valleys and depressions in mountainous areas are especially densely populated, and among the fields and gardens there are only small areas of forests, most often planted. Only on the mountain tops are areas of dark spruce-fir forests preserved in some places.

The monotonous, poorly dissected plateaus with poorly drained surfaces are still deserted and have retained their forest cover. Significant forest areas are found in the Rhine Slate Mountains, the Ardennes and the Odenwald. To this day, dense forests cover the Sudetes, the Bohemian Forest and Šumava.

The position of the upper boundary of the forest varies depending on the geographical position of the mountains and human influence. It lies highest on the Massif Central (1600 m); in the Vosges and Black Forest it drops to 1200-1300 m and is largely anthropogenic; at the same height, the border lies in the marginal mountains of the Czech Massif, but there it is determined mainly by natural conditions. The subalpine mountain belt is characterized by crooked forests, mountain meadows and peat bogs.

As a result of deforestation, wild forest animals disappeared or retreated to the most inaccessible mountain areas. The primeval fauna of the region did not differ from the fauna of neighboring territories, but as forests were destroyed, its composition changed greatly. Many animals have almost completely disappeared or are preserved in a semi-domesticated state in parks and reserves. Wolves, lynxes and forest cats are no longer found almost anywhere, but foxes and badgers are quite numerous. Fallow deer, roe deer and red deer are found in nature reserves and parks. Along with the disappearance of forest animals, some representatives of the steppe fauna became widespread, penetrating into the region as open spaces expanded. These are, first of all, various rodents - pests of fields. They multiplied and spread far beyond their original ranges.

Among the birds you can find almost all representatives of European forests: partridges, hazel grouse, snipe, woodcocks, etc. Songbirds and waterfowl are numerous.

In France, especially in its southern regions, some representatives of the Mediterranean fauna are common. An example is genet, which is found all the way to Normandy in damp places and near bodies of water. A special feature of the fauna of the south of France is the abundance of reptiles and amphibians. This distinguishes it from the rest of Central Europe and brings it closer to the Mediterranean.

The physical and geographical countries united in the subcontinent of Northern, Western and Central Europe are located mainly in the foreign part of Europe. They are distinguished by a wide variety of relief types within tectonic structures of varying age and nature. These include Fennoscandia, the Central European Plain, the mountains and plains of Central Europe (Hercynian Europe), the British Isles, and the Alpine-Carpathian mountainous country. All these regions are almost entirely within the temperate zone and are influenced by the westerly transport of temperate air. Their nature is formed with the significant participation of cyclones, which are transported from the Atlantic.

There are features of nature that are common to the entire subcontinent.

This region is characterized by Various types temperate climate- from maritime in the west to transitional to continental in the east, increasing gradually, mainly due to a decrease in winter temperatures from west to east and a decrease in annual precipitation. Maximum precipitation gradually changes from winter to summer.

The region is distinguished by a dense river network. Majority large rivers deep, flat, but originating in the mountains, have a more or less uniform flow. In the west of the subcontinent, rivers, as a rule, do not freeze; in the east they are covered with ice.

The indigenous vegetation of this territory is mainly forests, in the north - coniferous on podzolic soils, in the south - mixed, under which sod-podzolic soils are formed, and, finally, broad-leaved on gray and brown forest soils. Forest vegetation is poorly preserved. Even where there are many forested areas, forest communities, as a rule, are significantly modified by human economic activities.

Northern, Western and Central Europe is a region of ancient settlement. The countries of the subcontinent have a diverse range of industries. The region has a dense transport network and many large cities. Undisturbed natural complexes Hardly ever.

Central European Plain

This is the foreign western part of a vast physical-geographical country, which is usually called the East European, or Russian Plain. The border with the Russian part of the region is conditional; there are no clear natural boundaries here. In the north it is limited by the coasts of the North and Baltic seas, in the west by the river valley. Meuse, in the south the border runs along the foothills of Hercynian Europe. The Central European Plain extends from west to east for 1200 km, and from north to south - for 200-500 km. Its territory includes the Netherlands, Denmark, the northern regions of Germany and Poland, as well as part of Belarus and the Baltic countries.

The main natural features of this region are determined by its position within the platform plate, mainly the ancient European platform. The Central European Plain occupies a trough, separated from the structures of the Baltic Shield by a zone of subsidence, which currently represents the depression of the Baltic Sea and the Danish Straits.

The relief of the region is formed within the syneclise, where the platform foundation is covered by a thick sedimentary cover. The process of subsidence of the northern part of the trough continues, so accumulation predominates here - river and sea. The main types of morphostructures are plains, accumulative in the north and flat strata in the southern half of the region. During the Pleistocene glaciation, the plain was covered with ice.

The last (Würm, Vistula, Valdai) glaciation reached the middle of the Jutland Peninsula and further to the valley of the river. Elbe, at the latitude of Berlin, therefore large areas of the plain are occupied by glacial and water-glacial forms of exogenous relief. Many of the islands of the Danish archipelago are areas of hilly moraine plains, cut off from the mainland as a result of land subsidence. Along the low-lying coast, relief forms associated with marine and cumulation are common. The characteristic banks are watts and marches. There are numerous spits and seaside dunes. With further subsidence of the coastline, the spaces behind the dunes are filled with sea, and the dunes form chains of islands (for example, the Frisian Islands). In the lower reaches of the rivers crossing the region, low, flat alluvial plains are formed, on which the channels are sometimes located higher than the surrounding area (the rivers flow on their own thick sediments). Deltas form at the mouths of large rivers. This is, for example, the Rhine delta. Part of its territory is below sea level (minimum level - 6.7 m) and is not flooded only thanks to coastal ramparts and artificial dams. In the west of the region (beyond the boundary of the last glaciation) to the south of the marine and alluvial plains, PTCs are formed on flat sandy outwash (gesta), often swampy (moors). To the east of the Elbe, hilly-moraine terrain predominates. Within the Baltic ridge there are hills over 300 m in height. Interhill depressions and outwash areas to the south of the ridge are often occupied by lakes. There are a number of lake districts - Pomeranian, Masurian, Mecklenburg. A cluster of moraine lakes stretches along the southeastern edge of Lithuania and Latvia. In the southern part of the region, along the foothills of Hercynian Europe, there are loess plains of periglacial origin - börde. They enter the Hercynian middle mountains in three festoons (“bays”).

The flat, low-lying relief of the Central European Plain facilitates the penetration of cyclones of western air transport of temperate latitudes far to the east: marine air masses dominate. Climate types within the region change gradually.

In the west, a temperate marine climate is formed with warm, humid winters and cool, rainy summers. Average January temperatures are from 0 to -3° C. The average January zero isotherm crosses the plain from north to south from the mouth of the Elbe to the foot of the city of Harz. In the east, a climate transitional from temperate to continental is formed. Here the amount of precipitation decreases somewhat, and its maximum gradually moves from winter to summer. Average temperatures in January become negative. Summer temperatures are almost the same throughout the region and average 16-18°C in July. Precipitation ranges from 800 mm per year in the west to 600 mm in the east. The Central European Plain is characterized by unstable rainy weather associated with the passage of cyclones and changes in air masses.

Due to the humid climate and flat topography, the rivers of the Central European Plain form a dense network. They are full of water throughout the year. In the west, the maximum flow occurs in winter; in the east, low spring floods appear.

There are floods in the lower reaches of rivers. They are usually associated with storm winds that cause surge waves, and with the highest sea ​​tides damming river flows. Tributaries of large rivers often occupy depressions where glacial meltwater flows and flow in wide and flat valleys. Their sources are close to each other, which makes it possible to connect river systems with canals, creating transport routes from west to east. total length According to the most conservative estimates, these routes are more than 1500 km long.

There are many wetlands in the moraine, flat outwash and marine plains. Waterlogging is associated both with a relatively large amount of precipitation with low evaporation, and with a flat topography and shallow occurrence of water-resistant rocks in a significant part of the region. Some of the swamps are under protection as unique natural objects. There are many marsh reserves in Poland. The most famous of the protected bogs in northeastern Germany is Mümmelchen.

The Central European Plain lies mainly in the zone of broad-leaved, mainly oak and beech forests. In the east they turn into mixed oak-pine, and in the extreme east - oak-spruce willows with an admixture of maple and linden. Indigenous forest types are poorly preserved.

There are especially few forested areas in the west (in the Netherlands - only 8%), but even where forest cover reaches 25-30% (in northern Germany and Poland), forests are distributed in separate tracts and their species composition is significantly changed. Gests are characterized by heather heaths, swamps, and meadows. In addition to heathers, pine forests grow on outwash fields and sandy sea coasts. Under the forests, low-fertility soddy-podzolic, sometimes gleyed, soils were formed. Forest brown soils are common only in some places, and in the south, within the Berde strip, brown forest soils are combined with humus-rich, so-called edaphic chernozems.

The surviving tracts of forests in Poland and Belarus are called forests. This is, in particular, the Belovezhskaya Pushcha on the border of these countries, where deer, roe deer, wild boars, beavers, martens, badgers, otters, lynxes and others, mainly forest animals.

There are more than 50 species of mammals and over 200 species of birds. A nature reserve has been organized on the territory of Belovezhskaya Pushcha, where a lot of scientific work is being carried out. In particular, the bison population has been restored here. Once ordinary inhabitants of these places, by the 20s. XX century they were completely destroyed. Work on their revival began at the nursery in 1929. Now bison are in Belovezhskaya Pushcha They live in the wild, but in winter they are fed. In addition to this oldest reserve (founded in 1541 by decree of King Sigismund I), there are 14 national parks and more than 700 reserves and natural monuments in the region.

The vegetation of the Central European Plain has been significantly modified by humans. In some places in the west of the region, only isolated trees remained from the forest crops, protected as natural monuments. Plowing of the territory, especially in the south of the region, where soils are more fertile, but erosion is also more severe, leads to land degradation. On the coastal plains, deforestation contributes to the formation of shifting sands. There are known cases when, in the Netherlands, sands covered entire villages, and the dunes moved inland, leaving residential areas at their outer edge unprotected from the destructive work of the sea.

Watts and marches are used for agricultural land. They are drained and plowed open. These are called polders and in the Netherlands they are used, in particular, for tulip plantations.

On the long-densely populated plains region is coming fight with the sea for every piece of land. The coastline continues to decline. A third of the Netherlands' territory lies below sea level. Already in historical times, a number of sea bays were formed on the site of former lakes, including the vast Zuider Zee Bay. People build dams and drain bays. Previously, earthen dams often broke through during floods caused by surge winds and river floods. Even now, there are catastrophic floods that cause huge losses and claim lives. So, in 1953, about 2 thousand people died, and 72 thousand were left homeless. There was severe flooding in the Netherlands, Belgium and Denmark in 1976. The islands of river deltas are especially affected. Sometimes they are washed away to the ground. The densely populated islands of the Rhine delta exist only thanks to man. In addition to floods, the destructive work of the sea and moving sands, there is another problem - soil salinization on the drained lands of the polders. A drop in groundwater levels causes salt water to leak in sea ​​waters. The properties of soils change throughout the entire area adjacent to drained bays and lakes. However, if the land is not drained, the Netherlands will lose half of its territory, where three-quarters of the population live.

The natural resources of this region are primarily water. Consumption has increased dramatically in recent decades. 84% goes to industry needs.

Mineral wealth is associated with the sedimentary cover of platforms and foothill troughs. This is primarily gas, North Sea shelf oil and potassium salts, brown coals.

Problems associated with the use of natural resources in the conditions of long-standing and dense settlement of this territory are water and air pollution, land degradation, and destruction of vegetation. We have to fight floods, soil salinization, and the onset of the sea.

In this physical-geographical country, two regions are quite clearly distinguished: the western with a maritime climate and flat topography, and the eastern with a climate transitional from marine to continental and a more dissected topography. West Side was not covered by the last glaciation and is a combination of fluvioglacial, alluvial and marine plains, and in the east the hilly-moraine relief with interhill basins, lakes and pradolins is quite widespread.

Mountains and plains of Central Europe (Hercynian Europe)

It is a large and diverse physical and geographical country within Central Europe. It is located between the Central European Plain in the north and the Mediterranean and Alpine-Carpathian country in the south and east. In the west the region faces Atlantic Ocean. The region contains almost all of France, southern Belgium, Luxembourg, part of Germany, the Czech Republic, and the southernmost regions of Poland.

The relief of Hercynian Europe is formed on the tectonic structures of the epi-Hercynian Western European platform. During the era of the Alpine orogeny, secondary mountain building took place with a complex system of faults, faults, and the formation of horsts and grabens. Differentiated tectonic movements were accompanied by volcanic processes.

To this day, volcanic mountains have been preserved - dikes and domes (for example, Siebengebirge in the Rhine Slate Mountains), extinct cones - Puy de Sancy (1886 m) in the Mont Dore massif, etc. and the Central French Massif, hot springs in the valley of the river. Heat and mineral - Karlovy Vary at the foot of the Ore Mountains. The mineral springs of Vichy in the French Massif Central and many others are widely known.

Differentiated movements during the Alpine orogeny created a very unique fragmented relief: alternation of medium-altitude mountains mainly on the ledges of the Hercynian basement and plains on the sedimentary cover of syneclise basins.

On the protrusions of the foundation, medium-high block mountains were formed - horsts: Arre, Vosges, Black Forest, Rhine Shale, Ardennes, Ore, Sudetenland, Šumava, Bohemian and Thuringian Forest, Harz, and denudation plains: Armorican, Norman, Bohemian-Moravian Uplands, western Loire Lowland and others. Syneclises are represented by stratal plains of different heights, less often - accumulative plains, such as the Northern French, Garonne lowlands, Lesser Poland Uplands, Lorraine Plateau, etc. Along the margins of the basins, monoclinal plains and cuesta ridges composed of limestones and sandstones (Ile des ridges) are widespread. France, Dry Champagne, Swabian and Franconian Alb, etc.). Sometimes they reach quite high altitudes: the Franconian Alb is above 600 m, the Swabian - above 1000 m. From north to south, Hercynian Europe is crossed by a young rift - the Rhine-Rhone graben, in which accumulative plains formed on the alluvium of the Rhine and Rhone are formed.

Thus, the structure of the surface of the region involves a complex combination of mountains and plains in basins. As a result, the entire region is characterized by a mosaic of all components of nature and natural complexes.

The region is located in the temperate zone in the area of ​​westerly transport of air masses and active cyclonic activity. In general, when moving from west to east, the features of continental climate increase. However, depending on the exposure of the slopes and the height of the place, climatic conditions are often different in nearby areas.

On the Atlantic coast, the climate is typically maritime with positive average monthly temperatures in winter (up to 6-8°C in the southeast), cool summers and high amounts of precipitation (in some places more than 1000 mm) throughout the year. But already in the center of the Paris Basin, features of continentality appear: maximum precipitation passes into the summer period, and the amplitude of average monthly temperatures increases. The contrasts of conditions at a short distance in the area of ​​the Upper Rhine Plain are even more pronounced: on the western slopes of the Vosges and Black Forest more than 1000 mm falls during the year, on the plain - 500-600 mm with a summer maximum. In the mountains, summers are cool, snow falls and lies in winter, and in the Rhine Valley, average monthly summer temperatures reach 18-20°C, and winter temperatures are slightly above 0°C. The Czech basin also differs in some features of its continental climate.

Such frequent changes of conditions in small areas, a kind of mosaic climate, reflecting the mosaic nature of the relief, also distinguishing feature nature of the region.

The region is located in a zone of deciduous forests. Altitudinal zonation and slope exposure play a major role in its distribution. The wide variety of rocks involved in the structure of the surface enhances the mosaic nature of the soil and vegetation cover of Hercynian Europe.

The indigenous type of vegetation is “hercynic flora”.

These broad-leaved forests on brown forest soils, dominated by beech, hornbeam, oak, and noble chestnut, have undergone strong and varied anthropogenic influence and have been replaced over large areas by agricultural land or meadows and heathland.

Cultural landscapes rise along gentle mountain slopes up to 500-700 m, forests grow higher - mixed up to 1000-1100 m, then spruce-fir - on the windward slopes, and with the participation of pine - on the leeward ones. Even higher (up to 1300 m) are subalpine meadows. On the limestone karst plateaus in the south of the region there are bush thickets such as shiblyak on humus-carbonate soils. The upper limit of the forest in many mountains has been reduced as a result of grazing on mountain meadows. In France, a landscape called "bocage" was very common on the plains. These are fields and meadows, lined with trees and tall bushes, which creates the impression of a large forest. Nowadays, due to the enlargement of fields, hedges are disappearing, and this intensifies the processes of soil degradation. Planted pine forests are widely known in the Landes (on the coast of the Bay of Biscay), where they stabilize the shifting sands of sea dunes and contribute to the drainage of wetlands. Plantings of fast-growing poplar are numerous throughout the region.

In the remaining forest areas there are many birds and small mammals (hedgehogs, dormice, weasels, stoats, etc.). Ungulates include roe deer, red deer, and wild boar. Previously, a wild forest cat was often found throughout the territory; now it lives only in the south of France in the Camargue nature reserve in the Rhone delta, where a variety of birds and animals, including rare ones, live.

Hercynian Europe has rich natural resources: agroclimatic, land, water. There are many mineral deposits here. The “coal axis” of Europe runs through the region, including one of the 10 largest in the world - the Ruhr basin and a number of smaller ones. In the Hercynian structures there are deposits of iron, copper, tin and uranium ores, there are copper-bearing sandstones and limestones, which contain others in addition to copper.

The region is rich in balneological resources: the healing mineral and thermal waters of the French Massif Central, the foothills of the Ore Mountains, etc. are world famous.

In the area of ​​the Karlovy Vary resort, known since the Roman invasion, there are more than a hundred water sources containing up to 40 chemicals. There are thermal baths with temperatures above 40°C.

The plains and midlands of Central Europe have long been densely populated. Development is predominantly agricultural and industrial. Anthropogenic pressure here is one of the strongest in the world, therefore the degree of change in natural complexes is great, especially on the plains and in the lower mountain zones. The fight against soil degradation, water and air pollution, land reclamation, restoration of forest cover, and protection of surviving fauna require large investments. In the countries of the region, a network of protected areas has been created - nature reserves, wildlife sanctuaries, and national parks.

With all the diversity of natural conditions, Hercynian Europe has some features common to the entire region.

Significant height amplitudes, both relative and absolute.

Manifestations of volcanism during the formation of the territory and the widespread distribution of post-volcanic phenomena, mainly mineral and thermal water sources.

The climate is temperate with marine features on the western slopes of mountains and hills, and continental climate in basins and large valleys.

The predominance of fluvial morphosculpture as a result high degree moistening the area.

A dense network of deep rivers with a uniform flow regime, which do not freeze or are covered with ice for a short time.

Location within the zone of deciduous forests with brown forest soils, poor preservation of indigenous types of vegetation.

A wealth of mineral resources, both ore associated with intrusions and non-ore in the sedimentary cover of syneclise basins and Hercynian foothill and intermountain troughs.

Good provision of agroclimatic and land resources suitable for cultivating almost all agricultural crops of the temperate zone.

A high degree of development of the territory as a result of long-term settlement and natural conditions favorable for life and economy.

On the territory of Hercynian Europe there are 2 regions that differ markedly in natural conditions. Thus, the Atlantic region has its own characteristics, including a significant part of France, Belgium, Luxembourg, with clearly defined features of the maritime climate and the corresponding properties of the river network and soil and vegetation cover, with a predominance of flat terrain, complicated by the cuesta system. The Central European region has its own specific natural features, with a climate transitional from maritime to continental and a wide distribution of mid-mountain relief combined with intermountain basins.

Alpine-Carpathian country

This region includes the mountain systems of the Alps and Carpathians, foothill plateaus - Swiss and Bavarian and plains, mainly lowlands - Venetian-Padan (Lombard), Middle Danube (Hungarian) and Lower Danube (Romanian). Within the region are Switzerland, Austria, Hungary, Romania, Slovakia and the outskirts of a number of states: the very south of Germany, the southeast of Poland, the west of Ukraine and Moldova, the north of Bulgaria and Slovenia, the southeast of France, the north of Italy.

According to the zoning scheme adopted for this manual, T.V. The Vlas Alps and the Alpine plains, on the one hand, and the Carpathians and the Carpathian plains, on the other, are considered as independent physical and geographical countries. However, taking into account the common origin of mountain systems of the same geological age, and therefore largely similar in structure, and the presence of similarities in the lowland areas due to their morphostructural features and location in the 40s latitudes, we follow R. A. Eramov ( 1973), E.P. Romanova (1997) and others, we consider the listed areas to be a single physical-geographical country. In addition, the entire region is located in temperate climatic zone and is significantly influenced by the Atlantic.

The region is formed within the Mediterranean (Alpine-Himalayan) mobile belt. The main stage of folding took place here in the Neogene, although more ancient structures that arose in the Paleozoic (in the Hercynian era of orogenesis) also take part in the structure of mountain systems.

In the Alps, a zone of crystalline massifs can be traced - the Maritime, Kot, Gray, Bernese, Pennine, Lepontine, Rhaetian, Ötztal, Zillertal Alps with the Mont Blanc massif - 4807 m, Monte Rosa - 4634 m, etc. (Fig. 49). In the Carpathians, this zone is expressed only in the I) High Tatras (Gerlachovski-Štit - 2655 m) in the north and in the Transylvanian Alps (Moldovianu - 2543 m) in the south of the system. Alpine movements folded limestone strata (the most common in the Alps) and flyschs, characteristic both of the Alps, where they border limestone and dolomite ridges in a narrow strip, and of the Carpathians, where folded flysch strata make up most of the system. In the Eastern Alps, all zones are well defined, both from the north, the boom and the south of the axial ridges, and in the Western Alps they stretch along the outer edge, while crystalline massifs rise above the Venetian-Padan Plain. Folding in mountain systems is complex - with thrusts, overthrusts, recumbent and overturned folds, a characteristic combination of failure, thrusting and rolling folds. The formation of basins, which formed the plains, occurred as a result of the same alpine movements on the site of intermountain synclinoriums or middle massifs, of which the largest is Pannonekiy, which largely predetermined the horseshoe-shaped bend of the Carpathians. The complex geological history determines many of the natural features of the region.

The appearance of the mountains is formed by leading exogenous processes, mainly erosion and exaration. The Alps were subject to five glaciations.

Mountain-glacial forms are widespread in the region, but are especially common in the northwestern Alps and in the Western Carpathians (in the Tatras).

They are most characteristic of the highest crystalline massifs, where pointed cirque ridges and peaks, pyramidal-shaped carlings, deep trough valleys, often with stepped slopes, create a special relief called alpine. However, there are many ridges with rounded peaks and gentle slopes, especially in the flysch zone. The river valleys cutting through this zone are usually wide and often terraced. Mountain ranges composed of limestones, dolomites, and marls have a complex topography: rocky, steep-walled massifs with tower-shaped peaks are separated by deep valley-gorges. Fault tectonics are characteristic of both mountain systems. Longitudinal and transverse faults divide the massifs into separate ridges; they are often occupied by rivers and lakes with dammed basins. Particularly powerful faults separate the Carpathians from the European Platform and the Pannonian Massif. Numerous intrusions and effusive covers are associated with them. The plains within the region are either stratified or accumulative lowlands (Padanskaya, Lower Danube, part of the Middle Danube Plain - Alfeld), for which fluvial morphosculptures are common: terraced river valleys and an erosion network attached to them, eroding alluvial deposits and loess. Part of the subsidence zones was involved in neotectonic uplifts and represents dissected undulating hills and plateaus: the Swiss and Bavarian plateau - in the Pre-Alpine trough, the Moldavian upland - in the Cis-Carpathian, the east of the Middle Danube Plain (Dunantul) on the Pannonian massif.

The climatic conditions of the region are determined by its position in the temperate climate zone and mountainous terrain. The main climate-forming process is the western transfer of air masses. The mountains receive a large amount of precipitation, but it varies greatly at different altitudes and on slopes of different exposures.

The windward slopes of the Alps at altitudes of 1500-2000 m receive 2000-3000 mm per year, the leeward ones - about 1000 mm. To the east, annual precipitation decreases; in the Carpathians, up to 1500 mm per year falls on the western slopes, and up to 600 mm on the eastern slopes. The differences in temperatures are also great: negative temperatures prevail throughout the year on the northern slopes from 2600 m, on the southern slopes from 3000 m (on the eastern ridges even from 3500 m).

The region is a kind of hydrological node. Many rivers of Western Europe originate here: the Rhine, Saone, Rhone, Vistula, etc. All major tributaries of the Danube, which crosses the region from west to east, flow from the Alps and Carpathians.

There are many lakes in the mountains. In the Alps they have tectonic and glacial-tectonic basins (Geneva, Constance, Zurich, Lago Maggiore, Como, Gardo, etc.). There are no large lakes in the Carpathians, but there are numerous relict glacial lakes (karves, moraines), dammed lakes, landslide lakes, volcanic lakes, and small in area. Among the plains, Balaton (596 km 2) stands out, formed in a flat tectonic basin.

In the Alps, the area of ​​modern glaciation is quite large - 2680 km 2; in the Carpathians there are currently no glaciers, but there are numerous traces of ancient glaciation in the highest ranges (Tatras, Fagaras). There are more than 3,000 glaciers in the Alps, mostly valley and ridge glaciers. There is a lot of snow in the mountains.

On alpine glaciers, the thickness of the snow cover reaches 3-5 m, and in some places 7-10 m. Avalanches are a frequent occurrence here. As a result of their descent into forests, “tongues” devoid of vegetation protrude deeply. Gradually they are overgrown, but often with completely different types of trees. Avalanches pose a great danger and cause significant losses.

There are many mineral water springs in the Carpathians. This region ranks among the first in Europe in terms of the richness and diversity of cold mineral waters.

Altitudinal zones are well defined in the mountains. The zonality spectra of soil and vegetation cover are very diverse depending on many conditions.

Almost everywhere (except for the very east of the Alps), the lower zones are represented by forest communities, which successively replace each other with height, turning into crooked forests, subalpine and alpine meadows. The region is characterized by high-mountain short-grass meadows with bright flowering species- the so-called mattas. They are widespread in the Alps and are found in places on the high ridges of the Carpathians. The region's vegetation is characterized by comparative poverty and a low degree of endemism.

This is the result of the Quaternary glaciation. However, several types of flora are combined here: Western European, Mediterranean, high alpine, which formed in the highlands of Asia and through Balkan Peninsula penetrated into Europe. Deciduous forests in the region are predominantly beech and oak, coniferous forests are spruce and spruce-fir. Pine trees grow in places. The boundaries of forest belts are rarely natural; more often they are determined anthropogenic factors: cattle are grazed in the mountains, resorts are built and communications are carried out, valuable trees are cut down and floated down mountain rivers; agricultural lands are located in the lower zones. On the side of the Middle Danube plains, the lower belt of mountains is occupied by forest-steppe communities with fertile soils, which are intensively used.

The fauna in the mountains is richer than on the plains. The forests are inhabited by birds. Barn owls, a rare genus of vultures, nest in the rocks. Chamois and mountain goats graze in the alpine meadows in summer. In winter they descend into forest belts. European deer and bears have been preserved. In the Carpathians, the population of the mountain variety of bison and many wild boars are being restored.

The region has rich and varied natural resources. There are large reserves of mineral raw materials: iron, copper, polymetallic and uranium ores, bauxite, coal, in Ciscarpathia - , gas, . There are a lot of building materials: marble, limestone, gypsum, asbestos, etc. The hydroelectric potential is great, which is intensively used by developed countries in the region. Good agroclimatic and land resources in the intermountain and foothill plains in the lower mountain belts. There are beautiful summer pastures in the mountains. Recreational resources are widely used: mountain climate, mineral water and etc.

The region has long been developed by man. There are many large cities in the mountain valleys and plains; the mountains are crossed by a dense network of railways and highways, partly built in tunnels. Many resort areas, ski resorts, tourist centers. Nature is experiencing enormous anthropogenic pressures associated with construction, the creation of dams and reservoirs, destruction of forests, mining, grazing, etc. Recreational pressures are prohibitively high. The conservation of nature requires the efforts of all countries in the region. It is necessary to tighten environmental requirements in all spheres of life, wisely limit the flow of vacationers, save money, reduce logging, and expand the area of ​​protected areas.

There are many nature reserves, reserves, national parks and other protected areas in the Alps and Carpathians.

Almost all countries in the region have such facilities: Pelvoux in France (founded back in 1914), Gran Paradiso in Italy, Swiss national park, several reserves in Austria and Germany (on the Hohe Tauern and Großglockner ridges), Tatra People's Park in Slovakia and Poland, the Carpathian Nature Reserve in Ukraine, Codri in Moldova, etc. They protect flora and fauna, mountain landscapes.