Culture and traditions of the peoples of the Scandinavian countries. Culture of pre-Christian Scandinavia

In the $16$-first half of the $17$ century, two trends were observed:

1. peasant, imbued with originality and ancient traditions pre-feudal times (disappeared quite quickly in Denmark);
2. noble-burgher, based on the influence of foreign states.

Note 1

The values ​​of peasant tradition that have survived to this day are wooden architecture and wood carving. Folk songs, fairy tales and sagas form the basis of oral folk art. The peasantry became the main custodian of the national language in Iceland and Finland; in Norway, it was the only class that continued to speak the language of its nationality.

The culture of the nobility and burghers was very different from the peasant culture. These social groups were clearly associated with the royal courts of European states and their cities. Immigrants from abroad constantly replenished the composition of the most important feudal classes. Thus, Dutch speech predominated on the streets of Gothenburg, and German speech was often heard on the streets of Bergen. That is why Italian painters and French city planners, Dutch scientists and German theologians left noticeable traces in the spiritual development of the peoples of the Scandinavian countries in the $16-17 centuries.

Development of culture in Denmark and Sweden

The cultural development of Denmark in the $16-17 centuries was ahead of other Scandinavian countries. Danish scientists, anatomist Caspar Bartholin the Elder and astronomer Tycho Brahe, gained European fame. Bartolin the Elder described the work of the olfactory nerve. Tycho Brahe deduced the laws of planetary motion. The architecture of Denmark reflected the rise of the noble monarchy. The splendor of the palaces and castles built under Christian IV went down in history as the Danish Renaissance.

Literary works in the national language have not received worldwide recognition, but they form an important part of Scandinavian culture. The Bible was translated into national languages, which contributed to the formation national languages. In Denmark and Sweden in the 17th century, religious poems of Protestantism spread, and poetry with humanistic ideas appeared. This stimulates the study of native history and language. Historian Anders Wedel compiled a collection of more than 100 Danish ballads, translated the story of Saxo Grammar into Danish, which aroused interest in reading and studying native history.

Swedish writer Olaus Petri wrote the Swedish Chronicle, in which he described the history of the country. Writers of that time were characterized by an exaggeration of the role of Sweden, which was a consequence of the former “great power” of the country.

Scandinavian poetry remained primarily courtly. It was built according to classical forms. By the middle of the 17th century, Swedish secular poetry and historical drama appeared. The "Golden Age" of the nobility was expressed in the construction of buildings in the Baroque style. The artists and composers of Sweden were at the royal court, and, accordingly, were either foreigners or were under strong foreign influence. The French rationalist Descartes lived for a long time at the court of Queen Christina and was her constant interlocutor (Christina was considered the most educated woman of that time).

Norwegian culture

The decline of Norway affected the development of Norwegian culture. For example: in Denmark and Sweden universities were opened in the $15th century, in Norway - only in the $19th century. The painting of the Norwegian people remained ecclesiastical. Architects could mainly use only wood to construct buildings. Norwegian humanists published historical and literary works. The first Norwegian scientists wrote in Latin, for example the historian Claussen and his essay “Description of Norway”. The first poets also wrote in Latin. Therefore, we can say that truly Norwegian national culture It hasn't worked out yet. The Finns and Icelanders had no national culture.

Note 2

The outgrowth of medieval nationalities and the formation of bourgeois nations took place only in Denmark and Sweden. The remaining Scandinavian peoples were not politically independent and lagged behind in their development.

Thousands of years ago, the area of ​​Scandinavia was the main center of glaciation in Europe; The thickness of the glacier in these places reached three kilometers. However, if 17,000 years ago the population of these areas was only about 1,000 people, then already 11,000 years ago, immediately after the end ice age, their number has increased tenfold. Scientists attribute ancient population Northern Europe to the Atlanto-Baltic subrace. Their settlements were found in different parts Scandinavian Peninsula, Great Britain and mainland Europe. These are Maglemose in Denmark and Ertebølle in the south of Scandinavia, Komsa and Fosna on the Atlantic coast of Norway, Sandaria in southwestern Sweden, Star Carr in Yorkshire (England) on the shore of an ancient lake - all these are coastal and riverine cultures, whose age is 11000-9000 years.

In the most ancient Scandinavian settlements, there were usually up to 20 houses, in which about 100 people lived. Strong trapezoidal pole-type houses had an area from 5.5 to 30 square meters, the floors of the houses were coated with lime. Their inhabitants were mainly engaged in fishing, collecting shellfish and hunting, used flint axes, bone products, knew bows and arrows, used one-tree boats, and tamed dogs. People made bone, antler and amber items with artistic images, as well as drawings made on soapstone. In the villages there were special sacrificial places and sanctuaries. The most ancient deities there was the Goddess of Earth and fertility, floating in a boat, and the Goddess of Water - a naked maiden holding a vessel with sacred water in front of her with both hands. The ancient Scandinavians called the Supreme invisible Creator of all things the All-Father, and Father Hu and Mother Ceridwen were considered the supreme Deities of our Universe.

About 7,000 years ago, the first Aryan settlers from the Southern Urals began to arrive in Scandinavia. Then in Northern Europe Residential areas begin to appear with a center in the form of a large settlement surrounded by several small ones. The population of such areas already reached from 400 to 2000 people (for example, Wessex in England). People hunted seals, kept pigs, grew cereals, used grinding and polishing of their tools (knives, sickles), used drills, made dishes and others ceramic products from baked clay. More than a thousand pieces of ceramics and jewelry were found in Scandinavia on the shores of the Littorina Sea. Near the settlements there were long mounds - burial places for leaders and other people of high rank. For each of them, colossal mounds of large stones or megalithic tombs of stone slabs were built. Often, tombs and various household items were decorated with runes - unique hieroglyphs-symbols that had religious or mystical meaning.

The one-eyed God Odin (or Wotan) was considered the Father and Teacher of the ancient Scandinavians. According to legends, once upon a time, from the fog that arose in the primeval Chaos, the ice giant Ymir emerged. From Ymir came a race of mighty and cruel giants. The sons of one of them - Buri, whose names were Odin, Vili and Ve, rebelled against Ymir and after a long and fierce struggle killed him. From Ymir's body they created the Earth in the form of a flat circle in the ocean of Ymir's blood. They called the earth Mitgard and populated it with people made of trees. And for themselves, high above the Earth, the Gods built the heavenly city of Asgard, the road to which was a rainbow. There were 12 Deities in Divine Asgard: the sons of Odin - Thor (Thunder) and Balder (Spring), Thor's mother Jord (Earth), Balder's mother Frigg (Wisdom), as well as the ancient Aryan God Tivas (Dyaus) or Tyr (War) , Höd (Fate), Loki (Fire), Freya (leader of the heavenly warrior maidens “Valkyries”), etc. One of the inhabitants of Asgard contained the root of Evil. It was Loki. He persuaded Höd, the blind God of Fate, to kill Odin's beloved son Balder. With the death of Balder, light and joy disappeared from the life of the Gods. The shocked Gods gathered in council to discover the secret of reviving this Spirit of youth and life.

The keepers of knowledge in Northern Europe were the priests "druids" (in Sanskrit "dru" - "forest", in Gallic "druidh" - "sage, wizard", in Irish "drui" - "people oak trees"). The main Druids were in Britain, Ireland, Gaul and Scandinavia. According to the established order, the Druids had the right to name cities and places and speak at meetings before their rulers. The sacred tree for the Druids was the oak, the sacred symbols were a snake and a cross made of oak branches, the sacred Deity - the Madonna, the Immaculate Mother with a child in her arms. The Druids lived in complete abstinence and asceticism, their habitats were secluded caves or huts and rough houses made of stone, where they spent time in prayers and meditations, leaving only to perform religious ones. rituals, Druids were always dressed in white clothes - a symbol of purity and innocence and closeness to the Sun; the heads of the Druids were decorated with tiaras in the form of a circle. sun rays. The highest druids wore a brooch on the front of their belts, in the center of which was a large white stone - a magnifying glass, with which they lit the fire on the altar. The Sun Deity, whose worship came to Scandinavia in time immemorial from Atlantis, close to Britain, was depicted as a golden disk surrounded by a halo, in a chariot drawn by a horse; its symbol was a wheel with spokes or a cross in a circle.

The Druids taught ordinary people morality, and the initiates - the highest esoteric teachings. They said that the soul is immortal and believed in its resurrection. The Druids believed in three worlds and in the transmigration of a person's soul from one body to another for punishment and reward. On Earth, Good and Evil are so intertwined and balanced that a person has the freedom to choose between them every moment. The Druids argued that all people must ultimately be saved, but many of them must return to Earth repeatedly for this purpose until they overcome all the elements of Evil within themselves. Hell is punishment for sins and purgatory of the soul. Initiations took place on the days of the equinoxes and solstices in special temples that had the shape of a circle or an egg, from which, according to myths, the entire Universe once originated. There were also temples in the form of a snake and a cross. Druid sanctuaries have been found throughout Northern Europe. In France alone there are more than a hundred megalithic stone circles and more than 6,000 other ancient structures. All of them were built between 5000-2500 BC. The largest megalithic complex in Northern Europe is located in Carnac, in Western France. It extends 8 kilometers in length and includes boulders up to 7 meters high. In England, the largest stone structure is Aveburyhenge in Wiltshire. The megalith has an outer circle with a diameter of 427 meters and two inner circles with a diameter of about 100 meters, and the boulders included in it weigh between 60 and 90 tons!

The most famous of the ancient sanctuaries is Stonehenge in southwest England. "Stonehenge" literally means "hanging stone". This structure is a huge stone ring surrounded by two ramparts, more than 100 meters in diameter, separated by a moat. The outer shaft is 2.5 meters wide and 0.8 meters high, the inner shaft is 6 meters wide and 1.8 meters high. From the northeast there is an entrance - an alley 12 meters wide and 25 meters long, leading into the heart of Stonehenge. The direction of the alley points to the point on the horizon where on the day summer solstice The sun rises. central part Stonehenge - a circle with a diameter of 31 meters, along which there are 30 stone blocks weighing 25 tons; the height of the blocks is 5.5 meters, the depth to which they are dug is 1 meter, and in total over 80 stone blocks weighing up to 35 tons were used in the construction. Construction of Stonehenge began in 2800 BC. and ended in 1600 BC. The megalith served simultaneously as a place of religious rites, an astronomical observatory and a kind of calendar, as it records the points of sunrise and sunset on the horizon on the days of the equinoxes and solstices. In the arrangement of the stones, data on all lunar and solar eclipses past, present and future.

The ancient Celts called Stonehenge the “Work of Emrys”, since its creator was considered the soothsayer Emrys, whom the Scandinavians knew as Myrddin, and the British as Merlin, who later became the chief adviser to the legendary King Arthur (? - 516 AD). According to legends, initially, under his supervision, as many as three similar megalithic temples were erected, located at a distance of several tens of kilometers from each other. Emrys himself lived in a gigantic Glass Palace, which he built on the island of Enlly near the Irish coast, which later sank into the ocean. Thanks to the special design of the Palace, the shape of which resembled triangular pyramid, the flow of time inside him was greatly slowed down, and the diviner could remain young for thousands of years. If ships sailing past the island of Enli came too close to it, they fell under the influence of the invisible forces of the Glass Palace, and those of the people who spent only three days on the island returned to their homeland to find that in fact 30 years had already passed. Scandinavia culture megalithic stonehenge

Emrys and other initiates of antiquity knew that any magic circle, from a small ring on a finger to a giant Stonehenge, could serve as a receiver and generator of the energetic forces of the Earth. The same Stonehenge was erected by Emrys with the help of a magic ring that influenced the movement of stone blocks. The researchers suggest that on one of the faces of each monolith, the builders cut out several concentric rings of a certain diameter, width and depth and redistributed the mass of the monolith throughout the volume in such a way that its centers of mass and inertia were displaced relative to each other. Emrys then influenced the megalith with his ring, spell or touch of the wand, creating vibrations in it certain frequency. The stable oscillatory resonance that arose in the system of concentric rings generated inertial forces that compensated for the gravity of the stone block. Thanks to this, the multi-ton block became practically weightless and was easily moved through the air to the place needed by the builders.

Very often, we don’t even notice how we spend time comfortably sitting on pillows from the Finnish brand Marimekko, wrapped in a blanket, lying on a sofa from IKEA, and eating another portion of Gravlax, washing down the whole thing with Aquavit, staring at the screen on which we are walking. some Scandinavian detective, simultaneously lighting candles in the house.

pillows from the Finnish brand Marimekko

Let's say that tonight we decided to watch a new episode of the series "The Bridge", which takes place in both Sweden and Denmark, due to the fact that a crime takes place on the Oresund Bridge, which connects these two countries and each country sends a detective to investigate this case. Cold, autistic Saga from Sweden and hot Dane Martin put all their differences aside to find the killer. Or, another option is the series “Government”, which is also quite popular today.

still from the series "The Bridge", the main characters are Martin and Saga

Why are we attracted to eternal November, rain, comfort, authenticity, functionality, simplicity? This is probably all close to our hearts. This is not fake sincerity, clarity, practicality, which gives enormous freedom, in fact. This explains our love for the Scandinavian atmosphere that we strive to create in our home.

Indeed, despite the fact that the influence of other cultures is obvious and occurs, both in Russia and in other countries of the former Soviet Union, yet the love for everything Scandinavian stands out clearly. Scandinavian interiors are gaining immense popularity not only in the UK, Poland, but also in Russia, Belarus and Ukraine. Yes, perhaps, the furniture giant IKEA has won the hearts of many.

Scandinavians have a reputation for being cool and sophisticated aesthetes, yes, it's a little boring, but boring has become fashionable. And “boring” was not always the most obvious adjective to describe the Scandinavian character. The first Viking invasion dates back to 793, when there was a bloodthirsty raid on the monastery at Lindisfarne. Thus began the Viking Age.

However, the gentle cultural intrusion has been welcomed with open arms in the 21st century. Our homes sparkle with the minimalism of Scandinavian interiors, our bookshelves are filled with books from Jo Nesbø, Stieg Larsson, Fredrik Backman, Mike Viking and Henning Mankell. And before, remember, books and cartoons by Astrid Lindgren, Tove Janson... But what about your favorite Lego constructor? A series about Thor and Loki from Marvel. We borrowed a lot from northern cultures and quickly wove into everyday life.

If you haven’t really heard anything about Sweden before, except that this country is a manufacturer of good furniture and the birthplace of the Abba group. Now, we're looking for a wool sweater like Sarah Lund's from The Killing. Today it is not uncommon to meet a person who loves music that glorifies Scandinavian mythological stories, such as Amon Amarth, Black Messiah and the like. Swedish Volvo cars, which we associate with safety and efficiency, warm and delicate Selbu knitwear from Norway, which is loved by everyone in the world, including Kylie Minogue, Cheryl Cole, Claudia Schiffer and Kate Hudson, Danish Ecco shoes, the quality of which has no doubt even Morgan Freeman and Bruce Willis. Sweden has given us the inexpensive joys of H&M, as well as the classic, minimalist cult brand Acne. Norway introduced us to delicious salmon and stunning fjords. Finland charmed us with its saunas, love of hockey and fishing. Yes, you can’t even describe how much there is! All this is firmly settled in our screens, homes, shops and bookshelves. Thanks to the development of the Internet, the availability of films, books, TV series, as well as the opportunity to travel, we are increasingly accumulating not only various material objects from other countries, but we also expand our horizons, change our worldview and approach to life, relying on the mentality of other peoples.

We like the political structure and standard of living in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, and Iceland. High taxes (often 50 to 60% of income, for example in Norway) create a basis for the distribution of benefits throughout the country. Transparency, accessibility, the ability to influence - these are what we lack.

A family with a child is the main priority of countries such as Sweden and Norway. You will not find parents in these countries who think about how to find time to communicate with their child. Thanks to the wonderful work/life balance that is firmly ingrained in the Scandinavian mind, they don't have to think about it. Yes, no Swede or Norwegian will take overtime, stay late at work or think about it on the weekends. Life-work balance has such a positive impact on children's development that, according to the latest Unicef ​​data, children in Sweden are significantly happier than children in other countries. After all, both parents participate in upbringing, and often the father, along with the mother, babysits the child - feeds him formula, changes diapers, or picks mushrooms in the forest with the child... High level life, as well as the quality of life and its duration in the Scandinavian countries is off the charts in a good way, although the medicine there is not at the best level (they simply don’t really need it, given the quality of life). Consider their desire for environmental friendliness and maintaining a healthy lifestyle not only for an individual, but for the entire country and planet. Ecology, family, health, quality of life - these are not empty sounds in the Scandinavian countries - these are guidelines for life.

However, under the impeccable and modest taste and calm of the social-democratic government, there is another more intriguing side of Scandinavia - the dark side of the lands of the midnight sun, as evidenced by the numerous creations of Scandinavian thriller and detective writers literally obsessed with darkness, crime and cruelty. Scandinavian aesthetics knows how to play with contrasts, be it architecture with its simple lines and acidic colors on the facades, Scandinavian interiors in white and black, or neon rubber boots from Ilse Jacobson.

VIKING AGE
The Rurikovichs are descendants of the Scandinavians.
The pagans descended on the Christian and Islamic kingdoms of England in boats with dragon heads. The boats were called drakkars.
In 860, the pagans already attacked the shores of Italy.
For half a century, almost all of Europe was on fire.
Since the 9th century, a prayer from the fury of the Normans, “Lord deliver us...”, has appeared in all churches.
From the very beginning, all this was generally perceived as an Apocalypse.
In France, the Normans, Dubans, and Varangians called themselves Vikings.
Vikings - translated differently: “people of the bay”, etc.
Criteria for the peculiarities of life in the Scandinavian region: a situation of freedom, not divided into poor and rich. Divided into large and small. Kings are kings, jarls are princes. the bonds were free landowners, all of them were excellent at wielding weapons.
All critical issues were decided at tings - meetings. Bonds could present claims to the kings at these Things. A certain hierarchy: whoever is higher in rank is closer to God/Gods. The king could have been killed or removed. There were no taxes. The king toured his domain and was given feasts and gifts.
They have a special relationship with the gods, they never perceived themselves as dust, they are warriors with the gods.
The thinking of these guys is corporate thinking, they feel chosen people, which is based on valor. From the age of 7 a person was considered an adult. In order to become a Viking from childhood, one had to bear the stamp of being chosen. Numerous tests.
A Viking is not a class, not a samurai or a knight. Killing a child or woman is a shame. Morality was tough. But it wasn't like that abroad. One of the entertainments when they won was tossing babies and catching them on spears. The laws only applied within Scandinavia. Because of the conquests, they still had no time for the Scandinavians. Scandinavian women were excellent at wielding weapons, and some of them accompanied their children and husbands on campaigns.
The Vikings were fatalists; there was no escaping fate.
Kings are born for glory, not for long life.
Numerous studies show that the Vikings were not afraid of death.
A categorical ban on theft.
A special moment: blood feud, sometimes it was replaced by ransom. Types of revenge: true Viking “blood eagle”, duel, many people for one, burning in the house (before this, women and children were taken out).
Special position of women. The one who pulled the sword out of the corpse had to take revenge. Revenge is never done all at once. Weapons of revenge: spear - Odin, ax - Thor, sword - Tyr, fire - (not prestigious) Locke, arrows too.
Without the Scandinavian “vaccination” there would be no chivalry in Europe. SCANDINAVIAN MAGIC
The image of a hero was unthinkable without magic. In the Scandinavian tradition there were 2 types of magic:
1. Gaurdora - magic is based on the knowledge of runes - signs, 24 signs described the universe
2. Seida
RUNIC MAGIC. Odin is a god who is constantly increasing his power. He is responsible for runic magic. Iggo's horse was called Odin. He sacrificed himself, hung himself on an ash tree branch, pierces himself with a spear and hangs there for 9 days and 9 nights, after which he sees on the roots runic signs and learns the runic teachings (the tree on which he hanged himself is Yggdrasil - the world tree). Runes do not have sound meanings, but they have their own concepts. The most important, the 25th sign, One did not open. If runes are cut on wood, they must be stained with blood. THERE ARE healing runes, runes against spells, love runes, runes against fire. BARDRUNNER - associated runes knitted in an ornament, we do not know the principle of this weaving.
SAID MAGIC. The Vanir (gods) lost the war to the Ases. After the war they exchanged hostages. The Vanir released NJERTH, god of the sea, FREYR, god of fertility and FREYA, goddess of love and war (father with 2 children).
SEYD is a magic that was prohibited by all laws; the ancient Scandinavians believed that SEYD was magic that came from chaos. Its use was punishable by death.
The magic of curses. NID - runic curse. It could have been disguised as a poem of praise. Nitstock is a victim of a curse.
All types of magic changed body parameters, werewolf, changing body size.
Body and space, magic provided (we examined the body, example with the eye).
Travel between worlds. Hel is the kingdom of the dead. The introduction of a certain nature into a person, the ritual of feeding with a wolf's heart. Mind games: induce ferocity, rage.
Life extension.
Impact on things.
Necromancy, sitting under a hanged man is a special meditation.
Love magic - Maldseng poems - were also prohibited.
Practicing magic is not in this reality. Seid had a special technique.

Medieval peasant

3 estates: peasantry, knighthood, monasticism
The peasantry is the silent majority; little has come from them, because they did not know how to write, and few were interested in them, but there are fragmentary moments. It is difficult to say what the peasants thought about themselves.
If you imagine the Middle Ages in the form of a pyramid. The place of the peasants is at the base of the pyramid, because the peasants served this society (the servants are dependent peasants), and secondly, the peasants are the least respected layer. Reading the Bible, people believed that work is still a punishment.
Medieval peasant: his own village (an area around 200-400 households, forests, fields, a castle) is his universe and he had little idea about the nearby lands. The peasants did not separate themselves from the community; they were dissolved in the community; (uliy) the family surname was not always established; the surname changed. There was no clearly expressed generic and individual consciousness.
Time for the peasant: family (materialized time in children, parents) times, epic good old days, agricultural time - seasons, cyclical, there were 3 seasons, there was no autumn. In the volume of the day: bell, dawn sunset, in the volume years - church holidays. The peasantry should not be portrayed as a crowd of people with placards towards the Renaissance.
Monasticism lives in the future, townspeople in the present, knights in their time, peasants in the past.
The Middle Ages are greeted by their clothes. There was a language barrier, the peasants had a jargon that made the upper class tremble. Peasants ceased to be peasants as soon as they became monastics. The upper class was against giving education to the peasants. High tuition for education.
The appearance was not very good, it smelled, the food ration was poor, fried meat, porridge, few fresh vegetables (rents for them), spices were replaced, mustard, vinegar, with sweet grape must. All this gave me indigestion.
The Middle Ages lived under a constant condition of hunger, crop failure, giving rise to overeating.
Clothing - gray, black colors i.e. The colors were not noble, clothing made of blue cloth was allowed only on holidays, weapons were prohibited, and hair longer than the ears was prohibited.

Peasant uprisings. The horrors they committed during the uprisings were cruel. The most cruel robbers are peasants.
The problem of feudal exploitation. The scope of the peasant uprisings was compensated by the fact that they were also harshly suppressed. Corvée is work on the landowner's land.
Various duties, including dispersing frogs so that they do not interfere with the feudal lord.
There was a right of the first night, but it is more of a cultural myth.
The peasants did not hold onto the land, they moved along it.
The peasants were well aware of the inferiority of their situation and sought to correct it.
Robin Hood was not a peasant. The peasantry might not have seen the feudal lords, but always looked up to them.
As for the attitude of the church towards the peasantry. The clergy treated the peasants well, they were friends, hard workers who fed the people. But with all this, the church had one big grudge against the peasant; there was a confusion of the peasant faith with folklore. The peasantry did not come to Europe out of nowhere. (paganism) Example with a dog. They threw icons of saints into the mud if the weather was bad. The Church was not happy with the state of things about this.
The peasantry is a specific class. There is no need to derive exact formulas about them.

Culture

Vikings

Completed by: Berezin N.M., 1st year,
Faculty of Management and Sociology,
Department of Organization Management

Tver 2008
Content:

Introduction
1. Who are the Vikings?
2. Exploring the Viking Age
Culture and life
1. Religion
1) World structure
2) A world inhabited by people

4) Burial of the dead
2. Society
1) Slaves
2) Free people

4) Life rules
3. People
1) Clothes
2) Decorations
3) Dwellings and festivities
4. Art and poetry
1) Poetry

5. Conclusion

Introduction

1. Who are the Vikings?

In medieval Scandinavian languages, the word “viking” meant “pirate, corsair” - a person who made his fortune by conducting sea raids on the shores of foreign countries, or attacking peaceful travelers in his waters. There was also the abstract concept of “viking,” which denoted the very process of robbery overseas. Strictly speaking, only those people for whom robbery became a profession should be called Vikings. This word is hardly suitable for ordinary Scandinavian peasants, merchants, settlers or artisans of that time, and even for the warriors who participated in the dynastic wars of their princes or in their own “showdowns”. However, it was the Scandinavian sea raiders who had the greatest impact on Europe at the time, and it is they who have attracted the most attention from historians ever since. Therefore, the period of Scandinavian history that began in the 790s (the time of the first known raids in Western Europe) is usually called the "Viking Age". This period ends around the middle of the 11th century, when raids and migrations ceased, the inhabitants of settlements outside Scandinavia practically merged with the local inhabitants, and social changes in Scandinavia itself led to the onset of the true Middle Ages. The word "Viking" has become a convenient term for the characteristic culture of the time, and so we now talk not only about Viking ships and weapons, but also about Viking art, Viking houses and even agriculture Vikings, although to people of that era such expressions would seem completely meaningless.
Contemporaries also did not call the Viking robbers “Vikings.” The Anglo-Saxons called them “Dans” - after the country from which they came. The Franks were called “normanni” - people of the north. The Germans were “people of the ash tree,” perhaps referring to their ships, although the ships were made of oak. The Irish used either the word “Gaill”, which means foreigners, or “Lochlannaigh” - northerners; at the same time, they sometimes distinguished between Danes and Norwegians: the former were black strangers, the latter white strangers. The Spanish Arabs called the Vikings "Majus" - pagans, and in the east the Slavs, Arabs and Byzantine Greeks called them "Rus" or "Ros" (possibly originally a Finnish name for the Swedes). The Scandinavians themselves considered themselves inhabitants of a certain place - “people from the Westfold”,
“people from Hordaland”, “people from the hills” and so on. Gradually, however, they developed a sense of national unity; names of nationalities appeared. They also used the word "Nord-menn" - northerners, sometimes in the limited sense of "Norwegians", but more often in the general sense of "Scandinavians"; the second meaning led to the appearance in modern English of the general terms “Northmen”, “Norsemen” and “Norse”. The origin of the word “viking” itself is unclear and highly controversial. The most generally accepted assumption is that it comes from the word “vik” - (stream, bay) and arose because pirates usually hid in bays and estuaries to attack passing ships and provide a base for raids along the coast.

2. Exploring the Viking Age

The study of the Viking Age is often hampered by traditional notions of ferocious and ruthless barbarians spreading fear and destruction in their constant search for prey, and many of the less sensational but equally important aspects of the period have therefore been overlooked. This is mainly because the European chroniclers of the time give a very one-sided picture: they (quite understandably) considered the Vikings only to be bandits and extorters of tribute. These authors knew almost nothing, and did not want to know, about the life of the Vikings, about their culture and trade, and even about why and where they came from. Knowledge about the Vikings, their lives and activities at home and abroad is based on extensive material of a wide variety of properties. The most fundamental are written sources (this includes, in particular, runic inscriptions on memorial stones that were usually erected during the Viking Age), geographical names (proper names), archaeological finds (human waste products, fragments of plants and animals, etc.), and as well as information about climatic conditions and terrain. Each source requires proper thought, which causes many problems. Because of this, to solve such problems, a number of related branches of science are involved, such as history, literary criticism, linguistics, toponymy, archeology, numismatics, zoology, geology and many others. Each of these sciences contributes to one degree or another to the study of the Viking Age. Thanks to this, we have the opportunity to cover the Viking Age from a variety of angles.

Culture and life

1. Religion

The main religions of the Viking Age were paganism and Christianity.
Subsequently, most of the northern peoples were converted to the Christian faith, however, to this day the study of the old pagan religion of the Vikings is the basis for studying the culture of these peoples. The beginning of pagan religion was a large number of myths and legends about the creation and structure of the world.

1) World structure

The spatial structure of the world among the Vikings was very difficult to study, but over many years of study, scientists were able to identify a general picture of the structure of the world as understood by the Vikings. The structure included “horizontal” and “vertical” components. The horizontal projection contrasts the central world inhabited by people (Midgard-earth) with the outlying lands (Jotunheim in the east, Niflheim in the north, Muspelheim in the south). Around the earth is the Ocean, where the world serpent Jormungandr lives.Jörmungandr, also called Midgardsorm, is a sea serpent from Norse mythology, the middle son of Loki and the giantess Angrboda.The basis of the vertical component is Yggdrasil (world tree), which connects all 9 worlds with each other:
Asgard is the country of the aesir gods, located in the sky.
Vanaheim is the world where the Vanir gods live.
Jotunheim is the world of the giant Jotuns, located east of Midgard.
Llesalfheim is the world of the light elves.
Midgard is the middle world inhabited by people (earth).
Muspellheim is a fiery country, at the entrance to which sits the giant Surt (Black).
Niflheim - world eternal ice and darkness, existing in the abyss even before the beginning of creation.
Svartalfheim is an underground country of miniatures.
Helheim is the underworld, the kingdom of the dead.

2) A world inhabited by people

The history of the creation of Midgard, the world of people.
In the beginning there was the black abyss Ginnungagap, on both edges of which lay the kingdoms of ice - Niflheim and fire - Muspellheim. In Niflheim there was a spring called Hvergelmir and twelve powerful streams (Elivagar) originated from it. Both edges of the abyss united and produced Ymir and the heifer Audhumla. The cow Audumla licked salty stones to feed Ymir with milk from her teats. Buri was born from a cow. His son Ber took Ymir's granddaughter, the giantess Bestla, as his wife, and she bore him three aesir sons: Odin, Vili and Ve. The Aesir killed their great-grandfather Ymir, and from his body they created Midgard. Having created the world, Odin and his brothers planned to populate it. On the seashore they found two trees: ash and alder (according to other sources - willow). A man was made from ash, and a woman from alder. Then one of the aces breathed life into them, another gave them reason, and the third gave them blood and rosy cheeks. This is how the first people appeared, and their names were: the man was Ask, and the woman was Embla, from them humanity was formed.

3) Paganism and sacrifices

The basis of paganism was the worship of deities, as well as sacrifices to them. The gods were the main ones among many supernatural beings, and each of them played its own more or less clearly defined role, and was responsible for some one, important aspect of human existence. They were presented in human form , and in general they behaved like people. The gods were divided into two families: the Aesir and the Vanir. The Ases were the more numerous of the two families. Their supreme deity was Odin, the omniscient god of warriors, the god of wisdom, poetry and battle. At the same time, unlike other gods, he was unbridled and unpredictable and possessed many extraordinary abilities that allowed him to perform mystical and supernatural actions. The Vikings associated Odin with war and therefore gave him many honors and sacrifices. One was one-eyed, he gave his eye for the opportunity to drink from the source of wisdom. His weapon was a spear, and he rode an eight-legged horse, Sleipnir. He had two ravens, Hugin and Munin. Every day they flew around the world and collected information about everything that happened. Odin lived in Valhalla, the “hall of the dead.” Here the Valkyries - maidens who determined the fate of warriors on the battlefield, but who were not goddesses - brought warriors from the battlefield to him. Here the warriors spent their time in games and festivities in anticipation of a battle with the forces of evil. Thor was no less powerful of the gods. He commanded in the sky and had power over lightning and thunder, storm and rain, weather and harvest. In cases where people were threatened with pestilence and famine, they made a sacrifice to the Torah. Thor was the son of Odin, but his character was completely different. You could rely on him in everything and he treated everything with understanding. He had great physical strength and, as Western European literary sources testify, he fought against evil, personified by giants. Thor rode in a carriage drawn by goats, and his weapon was the hammer Mjolnir. He was worshiped by many in the vast Viking world. A common divine symbol was Thor's hammer. The decoration in the form of a miniature Thor's hammer was usually worn around the neck. This is the only pre-Christian symbol that can always be accurately identified. After the introduction of Christianity, the small hammer of Thor, which was worn as an amulet, was replaced by a cross. There were other gods from the Aesir family. Among them is Odin's good son Balder. There was also the guardian of the gods, Heimdall. Of the Vanir family, the god Frey stood out most. According to sources, he was the god of fertility, who gave people peace and joy. The main sacrifices to Frey were made during weddings and ritual celebrations. The god Freyja was Frey's sister, his female incarnation, and she was also a cult of universal worship. She was the goddess of love and fertility, the leader of the diss - female creatures who were in charge of fertility in nature and among people. In addition to the two families of gods there were Norns. Norns - in German-Scandinavian mythology, three women, sorceresses (one old and decrepit - Urd, the other middle-aged - Verdandi, the third very young - Skuld), endowed with the wonderful gift of determining the fate of the world, people and even gods, they were called goddesses of fate , to whom both people and gods, as well as the Valkyries mentioned above, had to obey. The Vikings believed in the inevitable fate of man, which was determined by the Norns, and therefore often paid honor to them. There were also evil giants, enemies of gods and people. They lived in the outer circle of the Earth, but they could be found in the most desolate places, along with the contradictory, cunning and treacherous Loki, who was the father of the serpent Midgord and the wolf Fenris. Loki traveled between gods and giants, plotted, pitting them against each other, and more than once deceived both of them. Dwarfs, wise and cunning, who were also skilled craftsmen, also lived in desert places. Then there were the elves who lived in the depths of the earth, and the spirits that accompanied a person or his family. They represented what we would now call hereditary traits. The dead were to be treated well. They had special shape existence after death. The world was full of creatures that influenced the life and destiny of a person, and therefore it was better to be with them friendly relations. One had to behave correctly and honor the gods and other supernatural beings by giving them what was theirs.
Worship or sacrifices to gods and other supernatural beings could take place in different places, in dwellings, also in the open air, for example, in groves, in especially holy places, on hills and mountains, near streams. Perhaps there were special altars, which were heaps of stones, located either in nature or inside dwellings. The exact places of the sacrifices have not been established, but a large number of archaeological excavations provide their approximate location.

4) Burial of the dead

There were also special rituals associated with the death of people and their burial. The kingdom of the dead among the Vikings was Helheim, the mistress of this world was called Hel. Both men and women arrived in Helheim, with the exception of selected warriors who died on the battlefield, they ended up in the hall of the dead of the god Odin. Many things that he might need in another life were placed in the grave along with the deceased. The set and number of items were different. From the things in the burial, it was possible to determine the social status of the deceased. The deceased could even be buried along with his horse. Drink and food, as well as items needed on the road, were also placed in the grave. This indicates that moving to the kingdom of the dead was imagined as a journey. Especially incredible for modern man It is a custom to bury the deceased together with a companion. These could be men or women who were killed so that they would follow the deceased into the kingdom of the dead. These companions, most likely, were from among the slaves. Among some Viking groups, there was also a custom of burning their dead and their belongings, and then burying everything that was left after the fire. The Vikings thought that this way they would help the dead get to heaven faster by overcoming a less difficult path.

2. Society

Written sources outline three different classes of society: slaves, free people- bonds and military nobility.

1) Slaves

2) Free people

The basis of society was free people. It was a large and diverse group, which, in addition to the nobility, also included bonds, large landowners, tenants, hunters, agricultural and other hired workers, and some groups of artisans. Traders and mercenary warriors can be included in this category of free people. Free people had the right to be heard at a public meeting, bear arms and be protected by law. However, in reality the concept of freedom was most likely conditioned by welfare.
Each person had his own price. The social status of an individual also determined, of course, his role and influence in resolving issues of a public nature. Most of the free people were employed in agriculture, which, perhaps, almost everywhere was the main source of food. The land gave status and instilled a sense of self-confidence. There is also an idea that the antiquity of the clan, numbering several generations, was decisive for the status, and that such a clan was a large close-knit group and continued exclusively through the male line.

3) Women, gender roles and children

4) Life rules

The entire society of that era adhered to certain traditions and lived in accordance with a strict moral code. Violation of norms of behavior brought dishonor on a person, caused condemnation from society and made him an outcast. A person was required to be loyal to his family members and fellow members of the “felag.” Traditions had to be adhered to in relations between the master and the people under his control, in relations with friends, household members and servants. There were norms of hospitality and giving gifts, it was extremely important to keep the word given to someone, although this rule was not followed by those who went to foreign lands with the aim of making peace. Revenge was due for injustice and aggression and much more. Personal honor was reinforced by personal qualities. Deeds for the benefit of people were glorified.

3. People

1) Clothes

Samples of clothing in their entirety have not survived to this day, but shoes were discovered in large quantities, especially during excavations at the sites of former cities. These are primarily shoes and boots that reach the ankle or higher. The upper of the shoe was usually made of goatskin, and the sole was sewn on separately. The shoes were made professionally - the craft of shoemakers was very common in Viking cities. The cut remains similar in the most different regions. There is usually a lacing belt, piping at the neckline, and the top is decorated with decorative stitching, sometimes colored. These were ordinary everyday shoes. As for the elegant shoes that the nobility wore with their formal dress, almost nothing is known about them. The opposite is true for clothing. Much more is known about the clothing of the nobility than about the everyday dress of the poor. It was most likely very simple. But almost nothing is known about children's outfits. People in that era often used furs to line their cloaks and trim their clothes. Many fabrics were imitation fur. Knitted products did not exist at that time, but warm clothes made from yarn were in use, parts of which were “sewn” into linen as they were spun. There were also elegant raised fabrics such as open weave. In addition to trimming with fur or its imitation, clothing was often decorated with appliques, embroidery, sewing from metal threads or ribbons. Gold or silver threads were also woven for decoration. Dyed fabrics are often found.
The cut and decoration of men's clothing had different variations. The pants could be tight-fitting and reach to the ankles or tubular-shaped trousers that cover the hips and widen downward, or enormous golf-type trousers that are tied at the knees. Pants of this cut naturally included the wearing of stockings. If stockings were in use, they were long and held in place by a ribbon attached to a belt at the waist, or perhaps a long ribbon wrapped around the leg. Men's tunics or shirts could be either tight-fitting or wide. They could be worn with or without a belt. Cloaks were made of thick fabric. They were square cut and gathered at the right shoulder so that the hand holding the sword was free. The cloak was fastened at the shoulder with a large fibula clasp or bow.
It is widely believed that all Scandinavian women wore standard clothes with standard jewelry, that is, it was a kind of national dress. We are talking about the clothing of the highest nobility and representatives of the wealthy middle classes. It is possible that such clothes were intended for celebrations. Meanwhile, women's clothing was far from being so monotonous and uniform. Of course, the most characteristic and important element of clothing for Scandinavian women was the sundress with straps. We know little about its cut; apparently, it could have been a tight-fitting sundress made of wool or linen, decorated with edging and ribbons. The edging went along the top and bottom. From above it went down to the armpits, and from below it reached approximately the middle of the thigh. The sundress was supported by straps that were shorter in front and longer in back. At the front, the straps were fastened at each shoulder with large oval brooches. A necklace of multi-colored beads could hang between the brooches, and on a chain hanging from one of the brooches there could sometimes be various little things that were useful to always have on hand: a knife, a needle case, scissors, a key.Under the sundress, women usually wore a long shirt, which could be smooth or pleated. A thin leather caftan or some other clothing was probably worn over the sundress. At the same time, many Scandinavian women usually threw a cloak or cape over their sundress, fastening it in front with beautiful brooches made of gold, silver or bronze. Most often, such brooches had an oblong or round shape, or a trefoil shape.

2) Decorations

The craving for beauty was also reflected in brooches and other decorations. With their help, one could not only embellish oneself, but also flaunt one’s wealth. At the same time, there were not so many decorations that did not have a functional purpose. These are bracelets, necklaces, neck hoops and various pendants on chains; rings were rarely worn. Such pendants were mainly Christian or pagan symbols, such as a cross or a miniature Thor's hammer. The acquisition of jewelry, such as bracelets, neckbands made of precious metal, was also a way of accumulating wealth, as was the case throughout the world. Most of the Scandinavian jewelry that has come down to us is made of silver, sometimes gold was used. The decorations usually had simple form, and many of them were also correlated with a certain weight system, so that their value could be established without much difficulty. Thus, both women and men could carry their wealth on themselves and boast of it.

3) Dwellings and festivities

The immediate habitat of people was a dwelling - large or small, rich or poor, depending on the economic situation and social status of its inhabitants. As will become clear from what follows, between appearance There were differences in the size of urban houses and houses in rural areas, but both were located on a clearly limited area, enclosed by a hedge or fence, surrounded by outbuildings for one purpose or another. This can be seen in many archaeological excavations. Building materials (wood, clay, stone, turf, or combinations thereof) as well as construction techniques varied depending on local resources. The structures of the houses constantly underwent changes, and over time, the internal support pillars that supported the roofs of the houses disappeared, and the remaining pillars were no longer buried in the ground. They were placed on stone foundations to prevent the wood from rotting. Houses of a certain design were built from certain materials. Small dugouts sunk into the ground resembled dome-shaped elevations made of earth and turf. The dwellings of the highest nobility stood out for their size, shape and skill in construction. Houses were often decorated with magnificent carvings and were covered in bright paint. Entrance doors, as a rule, were simple, but at the same time they could be decorated with carvings or bound with iron. Both in residential buildings and in other buildings, door locks were in use. They were often made of wood, but sometimes also of iron. The castle was a symbol of the inviolability of other people's property; theft from a locked house was considered a particularly serious crime and, accordingly, entailed severe punishment. The person who kept the keys to the locks, and as a rule, this was a woman, was given special responsibility and was given a special status. Inside, the house usually consisted of several rooms in which semi-darkness reigned, since dormer windows they were small, there were few of them, and they almost did not let in any light. They were obviously covered with shutters. Some light was also provided by holes in the roof through which smoke from the hearths and stoves escaped. The fire from the hearth also illuminated the interior of the house. If more light was needed, for example, when doing some manual work, then oil lamps were probably lit. In addition, wax candles were in use, which were expensive, as well as cheaper tallow candles. The floor was earthen, well compacted and probably covered with straw. Along the walls there were protruding earthen elevations lined with wood. In small houses their width did not exceed the width of an ordinary bench, and in large rich houses they could reach up to one and a half meters. The inhabitants usually spent most of their time on these elevations, and the floor was used only for walking along it. Such elevations protected from cold and drafts. The hearth was usually located in the center of the common living room. It was located on a quadrangular platform slightly raised above the floor and served mainly for cooking and heating the room. In some houses, in addition to the open hearth, there was a small, round-shaped stove near the wall, which served the same purpose. Sometimes it replaced the hearth. The smoke from the hearth and from the stove, before coming out through the hole in the roof, spread throughout the home, and in winter, when people were inside the house most of the time, they constantly suffered from mild poisoning. The main decoration of the house consisted of fabrics and skins (wall hangings, bedspreads, pillows), as well as caskets and chests with padlocks. They were the only furniture in the house in those days, and things were stored in them. There were probably also low benches, and as for other furniture, it could be said that there was almost none, so few fragments of it were preserved. As is still the case in many parts of the world, people usually squatted or crossed their legs underneath them. In this position they had conversations, ate food, and had fun. Sleeping places were located in alcoves or small closets, and sometimes simply on elevated surfaces near the walls, where the bed was laid out at night.
During periods of sobriety between series of feasts, people probably passed their time in the traditional way. They had deep conversations, drained cups, conferred among themselves, gossiped, played board games and paid attention to the opposite sex. Men also went hunting on horseback, with hunting dogs and birds of prey, or arranged duels. Meanwhile, the women were engaged in needlework or some other manual work.

4. Art and poetry

Viking art was original, full of life and imagination. It was pan-Scandinavian and had only its inherent features. This applies equally to ornamentation, as well as to fine art and poetry. As an art form, poetry has proven to be the most enduring.

1) Poetry

In other sections of this book we have touched on Viking poetry in relation to historical events, religion, morality and much more. This section provides a brief description of poetry itself, its social content and form. The rhythm, style and vocabulary of that era scare away the impatient reader from getting acquainted with Eddic poems and skaldic songs, but at the same time they charm and capture the one who seeks to penetrate the world of this poetry, comprehend its imagery and form, and perceive its rhythm. Based on form and content, Scandinavian poetry of the Viking Age can be divided into three groups: runic verses, Eddic verses and skaldic verses. When we talk about runic verses, we mean examples of poetry imprinted on rune stones and in some other inscriptions. These are, as a rule, short poems of praise in memory of famous people, characterized by a simple meter and easy to understand.Eddic poetry is also distinguished by its simple structure and epic content and is close to folklore. Most of the skaldic poems have come down to us thanks to the Icelandic sagas. Here, long songs are divided into separate stanzas, which are inserted into the prose narrative to enhance its effect. Therefore, it is often difficult to imagine the structure of this poem as a whole. Much of skaldic poetry is in praise of famous kings and heads. The poems were, in all likelihood, created by no less famous skalds and were dedicated to certain occasions. In contrast to the Eddic verses, the verses of the skalds tell about contemporary events, and often we have the opportunity to correlate them with one or another episode of the history of that time. Therefore, skaldic poems can be dated quite accurately, and it can be assumed that many of them are conveyed to us through the distance of centuries by the words and memory of that time, despite the fact that they were created many years ago. The verses of the skalds are distinguished by complex metrics and special art style, and this indicates that they were created for a trained listener. It can be argued that many stanzas have reached our time precisely because skaldic poetry was considered one of the most refined forms of art.

2) Ornamental and fine arts