Mineral, industrial and thermal waters. Industrial and mineral waters

Industrial- waters containing certain components in concentrations that allow them to be extracted for industrial purposes. They occur at depths of more than 500m and occupy small areas. They are characterized by iodine, bromine, boron, lithium, germanium, copper, zinc, aluminum and tungsten.

Mineral- waters have a beneficial physiological effect on the human body due to general mineralization, ionic composition, gas content and active components. Their mineralization exceeds 1 g/l (brackish - up to 10 g/l, salty - 10-35 g/l, brines - over 35 g/l). There are medicinal waters with mineralization up to 1 g/l with a high content of specific biologically active components. Mineral waters are divided into cold (up to 20C), warm (20-37C), thermal (37-42C), hot (over 42C). They are also divided into ferrous, arsenic, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, radon, iodine, bromine. Provinces of carbonic waters are confined to areas of alpine folding (Caucasus, Pamir, Kamchatka, etc.), chloride ones - to the deep parts of large artesian basins.

2.8 Physical properties and chemical composition groundwater

The simplest formula of H 2 O is the molecule of vaporous moisture - hydrol; liquid water molecule (H 2 O) 2 dihydrol; in the solid state (H 2 O) 3 – trihydrol.

The study of the physical properties and chemical composition of groundwater is necessary to assess their quality for drinking and industrial purposes, to determine nutritional conditions, origin, and when choosing material for securing mine workings and selecting mining equipment.

The main physical properties of groundwater are temperature, transparency, color, smell, density, radioactivity.

The temperature of groundwater varies widely: in permafrost areas it is down to -6C, in areas of volcanic activity it is more than 100C.

Based on water temperature, they are divided into very cold – up to +4C; cold – 4-20C; warm – 20-37C; hot –37-42C; very hot – 42-100C. Water temperature greatly influences the rate of physical and chemical processes.

The temperature of shallow underground waters is +5 - +15C, deep submerged waters of artesian basins - +40- +50C; At a depth of 3-4 km, waters with a temperature of more than 150C were discovered.

The transparency of water depends on the presence of mineral salts, mechanical impurities, colloids and organic matter. Groundwater is transparent if it does not contain suspended particles in a 30 cm layer.

The color of the water depends on the chemical composition and the presence of impurities. Usually groundwater is colorless. Hard waters have a bluish tint, ferrous salts and hydrogen sulfide give the water a greenish-blue color, organic humic acids color the water yellow, and waters containing manganese compounds are black.

There is no smell of groundwater. The specific smell may be due to the presence of hydrogen sulfide compounds, humic acids, and organic compounds formed during the decomposition of animal and plant residues. To determine the smell, water is heated to 50-60C.

The taste of water depends on the presence of dissolved minerals, gases and impurities in it. Sodium chloride gives water a salty taste, sodium and magnesium sulfates give it a bitter taste, nitrogenous compounds give it a sweetish taste, and free carbon dioxide gives it a refreshing taste. When determining the taste, the water is heated to 30C.

The density of water is determined by the salts, gases, suspended matter and temperature dissolved in it.

Radioactivity is due to the presence of natural radioactive elements: uranium, radon, radium, their decay products - helium, their formation is determined by geological, hydrogeological and geochemical factors.

Due to the presence of three isotopes of hydrogen - 1 H (protium), D (deuterium), T (tritium) and six isotopes of oxygen 14 O, 15 O, 16 O, 17 O, 18 O, 19 O, there are 36 isotopic varieties of water, of which only nine are stable.

The compound D 2 O is called heavy water, the content of which in nature is 0.02.

The composition and properties of groundwater are studied at all stages of exploration, as well as during the opening and exploitation of deposits.

The study of the composition of groundwater has the main goals:

Determining their suitability for drinking and technical water supply;

Assessment of the possible harmful effects of water on concrete and metal structures of mines and mining equipment.

The chemical composition of groundwater also allows one to judge the peculiarities of the formation and nutrition of groundwater and the relationship of aquifers.

The chemical composition of groundwater is determined by the amount and ratio of ions contained in it (water mineralization), hardness, amount and composition of gases dissolved and undissolved in water, water reaction (pH), aggressiveness, etc.

The main chemical components of groundwater are cations - Na +, K +, Ca 2+, Mg 2+, anions - HCO 3 -, Cl -, SO 4 2-, microcomponents - Fe 2+, Fe 3+, Al 3+, Mn 2+, Cu 2+, Zn 2+, Br, I, N, gases – N 2, O 2, CO 2, CH 4, H 2, complex organic compounds– phenols, bitumen, humus, hydrocarbons, organic acids.

The chemical composition of groundwater is expressed in ionic form in mg/l and g/l.

The main sources of these components are rocks, atmospheric gases, surface waters and geochemical conditions that have developed within the distribution area.

According to mineralization, groundwater can be fresh, with mineralization up to 1 g/l, slightly brackish - 1-3 g/l: salty - 3-10 g/l, very salty - 10-50 g/l and brines - more than 50 g/l l.

Water hardness (H) is a property of water caused by the presence of calcium and magnesium salts in it. Hardness is expressed in mg. eq/l There are general, temporary and permanent hardness.

Overall hardness is estimated by the content of Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ salts in the form of Ca(HCO 3) 2, Mg(HCO 3) 2, CaSO 4, MgSO 4, CaCl 2, MgCl 2 and is calculated by summing these ions in mg. eq/l

where the values ​​of Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ are given in mg/l;

20.04 and 12.16 – equivalent masses of calcium ion and magnesium ion.

Temporary hardness caused by hydrocarbonate and carbonate salts of Ca 2+ and Mg 2+: (Ca(HCO 3) 2, Mg(HCO 3) 2, CaCO 3 and MgCO 3).

Temporary hardness:

, (2.6)

where the value of HCO 3 is taken in mg/l, 61.018 is its equivalent mass.

Stiffness constant caused by chlorides, sulfates and non-carbonate salts of calcium and magnesium. Defined as the difference between total and temporary hardness:

N post. = N total - N time (2.7)

Hardness is expressed in mg. eq/l Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ in 1 mg. eq./l hardness.

Natural waters are divided according to the degree of hardness into five groups (mg eq./l): very soft - up to 1.5; soft – 1.5-3; moderately hard – 3.0-6.0; hard – 6.0-9; very hard – 9.0.

Alkalinity due to the presence of alkalis Na + - NaOH, Na 2 CO 3 and NaHCO 3 in water. 1 mg. eq/l alkalinity corresponds to 40 mg/l NaOH; 53 mg/l NaCO 3 and 84.22 mg/l NaHCO 3 .

Active water reaction– the degree of its acidity or alkalinity, characterized by the concentration of hydrogen ions pH (decimal logarithm of the concentration of hydrogen ions, taken from positive sign): very sour - 5; sour – 5-7; neutral – 7; alkaline – 7-9; highly alkaline 9.

Aggressiveness of water– ability to destroy concrete, reinforced concrete and metal structures. There are sulfate, carbon dioxide, magnesium leaching and general acid types of aggression.

Sulfate aggression is determined by an increased content of SO 4 2- ion. With an excess of SO 4 2- ion, new compounds crystallize in concrete: gypsum CaSO 4 is formed. 2H 2 O with a 100% increase in volume and calcium sulfoaluminate (concrete bacillus) with a 2.5 times increase in volume, which leads to the destruction of concrete. Water is aggressive to concrete when the SO 4 2- ion content is over 250 mg/l.

Carbon dioxide aggressiveness. When exposed to carbonic acid, CaCO 3 - is dissolved and removed from concrete. With an excess of CO 2, a transition of CaCO 3 to Ca(HCO 3) 2 is observed, which easily dissolves and is removed from the concrete.

Excess CO 2 20 mg/l is called aggressive carbon dioxide.

The aggressiveness of leaching occurs due to the dissolution and leaching of CaCO 3 lime from concrete when there is a deficiency of the HCO 3 - ion in the water. Waters containing less than 30 mg/l of bound carbon dioxide and hardness up to 1.4 mg/l are aggressive.

Magnesium aggressiveness leads to the destruction of concrete with an increased Mg 2+ content. Depending on the type of cement, conditions and design of the structure, SO 4 2- ion is more than 250 mg/l, the maximum permissible amount of Mg 2+ ions is 750-1000 mg/l.

General acid aggressiveness depends on the concentration of hydrogen ions pH. Water is corrosive at pH 6.5.

2.9 Formation of the chemical composition of underground and mine waters

Groundwater constantly interacts with atmospheric waters and rocks. As a result, rocks are dissolved and leached, especially carbonates, sulfates, and halogens. If carbon dioxide is present in water, water-insoluble silicates decompose according to the following scheme:

Na 2 Al 2 Si 6 O 16 + 2H 2 O + CO 2 NaCO 3 + H 2 Al 2 Si 2 O 8 (2.8)

As a result, carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium, magnesium, and calcium accumulate in the water. Their distribution is subject to general hydrochemical zoning. Vertical hydrochemical zoning is determined by the geological conditions of groundwater formation associated with the characteristics of the composition, structure and properties of rocks.

In vertical section earth's crust There are three hydrodynamic zones:

a) upper – the intensity of water exchange, with a thickness from tens to several hundred meters. Here groundwater is influenced by modern exogenous factors. The composition is calcium bicarbonate low-mineralized waters. Water exchange is calculated in years and centuries (on average 330 years);

b) medium – slow water exchange. The depth of the zone is variable (approximately 3-4 km). The speed of groundwater movement and drainage decreases. The composition of the waters in this zone is influenced by secular changes in exogenous conditions. Waters are sodium, sulfate-sodium or sulfate-sodium-calcium. Water exchange lasts tens and hundreds of thousands of years;

c) lower – very slow water exchange. Exogenous conditions have no effect here. They are usually confined to the deep parts of depressions. Distributed at depths of more than 1200 m or more. The waters are highly mineralized, calcium-sodium chloride and magnesium-sodium chloride in composition. Groundwater regeneration takes millions of years.

Accordingly, hydrochemical zones are distinguished as hydrodynamic. Hydrochemical zone - part of the artesian basin, relatively homogeneous in hydrochemical structure;

d) upper – fresh water with mineralization up to 1 g/l, thickness 0.3-0.6 m;

e) intermediate, brackish and saline waters with a mineralization of 1-35 g/l;

f) lower – brines (more than 35 g/l).

The formation of the chemical composition of groundwater in solid mineral deposits is significantly influenced by oxidizing and reducing conditions that develop during mining.

Coal deposits are characterized by two types of natural conditions: in the upper parts - oxidizing, in the deep - reducing.

When mining coal, an oxidizing environment is artificially created, into which groundwater enters, and the course of natural chemical processes is disrupted.

In deeper horizons, waters are saturated with more persistent compounds (NaCl, Na 2 SO 4), are low-active and resistant to the environment.

As they move through the workings, the content of Ca 2+, Mg 2+ and SO 4 - in the water increases, hardness and mineralization increase. The content of Na +, Cl -, Al 2 O 3, SiO 2, Fe 2 O 3 increases to a lesser extent.

When the pH decreases, CO 3 2- sometimes disappears and HCO 3 - appears. The content of CO 2 and O 2 varies depending on the situation.

The greatest changes are experienced by groundwater entering in the form of drips, especially in wastewater treatment works. Acidic waters are formed only on the upper horizons, where groundwater of low mineralization and lower alkalinity flows. Typically, acidic waters form in old abandoned mine workings.

Acidic waters are good solvents, as a result of which their mineralization quickly increases as it flows through the workings.

The zone of possible formation of acidic waters covers groundwater, where strong acids predominate over alkalis in their composition. The lower boundary coincides with the upper boundary of the methane zone (approximately 150 m depth) and with the upper boundary of the distribution of sodium zones. The maximum thickness of the zone of possible formation of acidic waters is 350-400 m.

Mine waters are aggressive, in the upper parts they have sulfate, in the lower parts they have leaching aggressiveness.

2.10 Groundwater regime- a set of changes over time in level, pressure, flow, chemical and gas composition, temperature conditions, groundwater movement speed.

Changes in the groundwater regime occur under the influence of natural (climatic and structural) factors and man-made activities. Particularly dramatic changes in their regime are observed in mining areas. Drainage from mine workings reduces the pressure of groundwater, and sometimes completely drains aquifers, disrupting the natural regime of groundwater. Mining workings or drainage systems increase the coefficient of water exchange, the resulting surface deformations contribute to an increase in underground flow; The relationship between aquifers and surface waters is noted.

In some conditions, the amount of pumped mine water can be compensated by the natural influx of groundwater; in others, an intense influx into mine workings leads to the depletion of groundwater resources in a mine field or deposit.

When exploiting deep horizons in appropriate geological conditions, there is usually a change in the influx of mine waters with depth, independent of their resources.

For the conditions of Donbass, the greatest water abundance is observed at depths of 150-200 m; below 300-500 m, water inflows decrease. When the layers are horizontal and the aquifers are confined to porous rocks, the inflows of mine water during flood periods do not exceed 20-25%. The inclined occurrence of rocks contributes to a seasonal increase in flood waters by 50, 100% and more. Particularly sharp fluctuations are observed in the presence of karst rocks with an increase in inflow up to 300-400%.

Disturbances in the natural regime of groundwater occur at the very beginning of mine construction, during the sinking of shafts.

Many aquifers of coal deposits are opened to depths of 500-600 m, and when laying deep mines - up to 1000-1200 m. But since the shafts are fastened after the deepening, the inflows into them are insignificant and amount to 10-20 m 3 / hour, in some areas (Krasnoarmeisky) up to 70-100 m 3 /hour. Therefore, there are no wide depressions around the mine shafts and insignificant areas fall into the drainage zone.

Further drainage of groundwater occurs during preparatory excavations, especially crosscuts, which reveal several aquifers, but inflows do not exceed 10-15 m 3 /hour. Intensive drainage is observed during clearing operations, during the collapse and subsidence of rocks above the mined-out space. Accompanied by the formation of cracks connecting previously separated aquifers lying above the developed seams within 30-50 times the thickness of the coal seam.

Subsequently, collapse cracks are suppressed and their water permeability decreases, the inflow into the lava in this area will decrease or completely stop, and groundwater levels are restored to the surface levels of the general mine depression. The depression funnels that form above the workings are temporary and migrate across the mining area following the movement of the longwall face.

If the mineral deposit is shallow, the zone of water-conducting cracks can reach the earth's surface and water inflows into the mine will be formed due to the infiltration of atmospheric precipitation over the area of ​​the cleaning work.

When tectonic disturbances are opened, the inflows amount to 300-400 or more m 3 /hour, sometimes 1000 m 3 /hour.

As a result of the mining of aquifers, there are isolated cases of failure of groundwater intakes.

2.11 Origin of groundwater.

1) infiltration groundwater - is formed as a result of precipitation seeping into permeable rocks. Sometimes there is an influx of water into aquifers from rivers, lakes and seas. Infiltration can be considered the main source of groundwater replenishment, which is common in the upper horizons with intense water exchange.

2) condensation The groundwater. In arid regions, a major role in the formation of aquifers is played by the condensation of water vapor in the air in the pores and cracks of rocks, which occurs due to the difference in the elasticity of water vapor in atmospheric and soil air. Condensation in deserts creates lenses of fresh water above salty groundwater.

3) sedimentogenic groundwater is water of marine origin. They formed simultaneously with the accumulation of sediments. During subsequent tectonic development, such waters change during diagenesis, tectonic movements, falling into zones high blood pressure and temperatures. A major role in the formation of sedimentary waters is assigned to elision processes (elisio – squeeze). Primary sediments contain up to 80-90% water, and when compacted, they are squeezed out. The natural moisture content of rocks is 8-10%.

4) juvenile (magmatogenic) Groundwater is formed from vapors released from magma as it cools. Getting into areas more low temperatures Magma vapor condenses and turns into a drop-liquid state, creating a special type of groundwater. Such waters have an elevated temperature and contain in a dissolved state compounds and gas components that are unusual for surface conditions. Confined to areas of modern volcanic activity. Near the surface, such waters mix with ordinary groundwater.

5) revived (d dehydration waters are formed when it is separated from mineral masses containing water of crystallization. This process is possible at elevated temperatures and pressures.

Control questions

1. Name the main tasks and sections of hydrogeology and engineering geology.

Describe the water cycle in nature.

Name the main types of water in rocks.

Name the main water-physical properties of groundwater.

Describe the types of groundwater according to their occurrence conditions and their main features.

Name the physical properties of groundwater.

What are the main parameters determined by the chemical composition of groundwater?

Formulate the concept of groundwater regime. How does the mine water regime change?

Describe the types of groundwater by origin.

The mineral waters of Crimea are very diverse in gas and chemical composition and temperature. They can be used for therapeutic and preventive purposes, as well as raw materials for industry.

The following areas of distribution of mineral waters are distinguished:

nitrogen, nitrogen-methane and methane waters of artesian basins of the Crimean Plain;

nitrogen and methane-nitrogen waters of the Mountain Crimea;

nitrogen and nitrogen-methane waters of the Kerch Peninsula with local manifestation of carbonic waters.

Mineral waters are discovered, as a rule, by wells in sediments from the Middle Miocene to Paleozoic age. 5 deposits have been explored, the reserves of mineral waters for which are approved by the State Commission (GKZ): Saki weakly alkaline chloride-sodium waters (2 areas), Evpatoriya type marine (2 areas), Evpatoriya subthermal waters, Feodosiysk sulfate-chloride-bicarbonate-sodium waters (2 areas ), Chokrakskoye (2 areas) (Fig. 14). Information on the reserves of these deposits and their development is given in Table 8.

Table 8. Information on reserves of mineral waters listed on

	state balance sheet (according to "Geoinform" as of 01/01/2000)	Name of deposits				State of reserves m 3 /day Selection for 1999 3	THOUSAND M
	Operating organization Saki: section Saki 1 section Saki 2					96,87 54,40 23,28 7,52	Evpatoriya (sea) section City section Pionersky Evpatoriya (sea) section City section Pionersky

JSC "Ukrprof-health resort"

	Continuation of table 8. Evpatoriya (ter) section Eshisriyzhda section of the Gozhyuzoi aquifer Chokrakskoe: Northern section Southern section Feodosiyskoye: Western section					Vostochny section Non-explosive Non-explosive	Evpatoriya (sea) section City section Pionersky Evpatoriya (sea) section City section Pionersky Evpatoriya (sea) section City section Pionersky
	Not exploited 10.0

Total for the Autonomous Republic of Crimea

The explored reserves of mineral waters in these five deposits amount to 20.8 thousand m 3 /day. 7 sites are in operation.

Mineral water withdrawal in 1999 amounted to 264.59 thousand m 3 or an average of 724.9 m 3 /day. In addition, 6 more deposits have been explored, the reserves of which have been tested by the scientific and technical research and development association "Krymgeology" and "Dneprogeology". Information on these deposits is given in Table 9.

	Table 9.	Information on mineral water deposits, the reserves of which have been tested by the scientific and technical standards of production enterprises.	Place of Birth NTS protocol number and date of approval of reserves	Quantity of stocks
	m 3 /day	Usage Diamond Adzhi-Su Lechebnoe-Grushevka Beloglinskoe PGO "Crimea-geology" PGO "Dnepro-geology", No. 1173 dated June 3, 1969. PGO "Crimea-	220 forecast	Boarding house "Almazny" Water spill "Evpatoriya" Hospital "Black Waters" Not in use Not in use

Continuation of table 9.

In addition, the State Enterprise "Crimgeology" assessed the predicted mineral water resources for 5 aquifers of Crimea.

Information on the predicted resources of mineral waters is given in Table 10.

Table 10.

Information on the forecast resources of mineral waters.

The data in Table 10 indicate great prospects for identifying new mineral water deposits in Crimea, since the predicted resources (151D thousand m 3 / day) are a reserve for this. In the process of geological exploration, 33 promising areas and manifestations of mineral waters were identified and taken into account (Fig. 14).

The Novoselovskoye thermal water deposit (Fig. 14) is taken into account separately, the reserves of which are estimated at 8412 m 3 /day, including explored 3912 m 3 /day.

They are also mineral waters, since they contain iodine, bromine and boron in quantities sufficient to classify them as groundwater. Thermal waters are partially used for therapeutic showers

In the Foothills these rocks come to the surface. In the Plain Crimea they dive to a depth of 4.0-4.5 km, reaching maximum depths of 5.5-6.0 km in the west of the Tarkhankut Peninsula.

The reservoir properties of water-bearing rocks decrease as they sink.

Their maximum values ​​were recorded in the Novoselovskaya and Oktyabrskaya areas (Fig. 14), where a delta complex with a thickness of up to 370 m was discovered at depths of 1.0-2.3 km, which makes it possible to obtain self-flowing tributaries up to 4925 m/day. (well 35 Oktyabrskaya). In the Plain Crimea, the waters of this horizon are pressure, the pressure at the wellheads is 5-15 atm.

The temperature regime is determined primarily by the depth of rock occurrence. The maximum water temperatures were recorded in the west of the Tarkhankut Peninsula -180-190° C. On the Central Crimean uplift, the water temperature varies between 50-90° C. The waters of the horizon are mineralized; as you move north, the salt content increases from 1.1 (well . 38 Oktyabrskaya) to 71.7 g/dm 3 (well 5 Genicheskaya).

The second promising aquifer complex is confined to Paleogene deposits, which in the North Sivash area are represented mainly by sandstones and siltstones lying at a depth of 1400-1800 m. The water is pressure, the pressure at the wellheads is 4-6 atm. The flow rate of wells during self-flow reaches 2440 m 3 /day.

(borehole 15 Strelkovaya). Reservoir water temperature is 51-78°C, salinity is 25-33 g/dm3.	The waters contain industrial concentrations of iodine (up to 30 mg/dm 3).					In the Novoselovskaya, Oktyabrskaya and Severo-Sivashskaya areas, hydrogeological studies were carried out in order to calculate the reserves of techuenergy waters using geocirculation systems (GC). The results of these works allow us to estimate potential reserves in the amount of 40 thousand m 3 /day.
	with a thermal energy potential of 1200 Gcal/day. (Table 11).	Table 11.	Hydrogeological and thermal energy characteristics of promising thermal water aquifers.	Name of areas	Aquifer data
Thermal power	Age Depth of occurrence, m Well flow rate,		47-69 55-85 45-72	17210 17860 5680		Water temperature at the mouth, 0 C Potent. reserves, m 3 /day

Thermal potential

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Thermal and mineral water

Introduction

1. Nalychevo springs

2. Zheltye (Zheltorechenskie) springs

3. Melt sources

4. Washer sources

5. Local history sources

6. Vershinsky mineral springs

7. Kekhkui (Kitkhoi) thermomineral springs

8. Dzendzur fumarole field (Upper Dzendzur springs)

9. Aag sources

10. Izotovsky springs

11. Noisy sources

12. Chistinskie (Clean) springs

13. Koryak Narzans

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Thermal waters are underground waters with a temperature above 20° C, heated by the heat of the deep zones of the earth's crust.

Their use for economic purposes can be quite diverse, which makes it important to study the conditions of their formation, the geography of distribution of sources, their economic significance and both existing and possible environmental problems related to their use.

The purpose of this work is to systematize data on the formation, spatial distribution and economic use of thermal waters, as well as environmental problems associated with them.

When achieving the goal, the following tasks were completed:

Study of literary sources and Internet resources containing data on the formation, geography of distribution and economic use of thermal waters;

Carrying out a systematic analysis of the information received;

Identification from literary sources of the main environmental problems associated with the use of thermal waters;

Proposal of some measures for monitoring and protection of thermal waters.

When writing this work, the author was faced with the fact that this topic was developed in the literature only for certain regions, and at the same time not sufficiently developed for others. And the research at the global level that this work required is virtually non-existent.

1. Nalychevo springs

Nalychevo springs - the largest hot carbon dioxide springs in Kamchatka. They are located in the center of the park, at the sources of the Nalycheva River, in a basin framed by low mountain ranges on all four sides. There is a favorable microclimate, rich vegetation, and unforgettable landscapes. On the river terraces there are tall grass meadows and clearings of dry tundra. At the foot of the hills surrounding the basin, the meadows give way to a park forest of stone birch. Behind the low ridges of forested watersheds rocky ridge tops and snow cones of volcanoes jut out.

The area of ​​hydrothermal discharge covers an area of ​​more than 2 km2. The outlets of the springs were concentrated at the foot of Mount Kruglaya (Big Cauldron), on the left bank floodplain of the river. Goryacheya (Goryacherechenskiye) and on the floodplain of the river. Yellow (Yellow or Zheltorechensky springs).

The thermal site "Kotel" was named after a travertine dome with a funnel on top, once filled with water bubbling from strong gas jets. Sediments from the springs (iron hydroxides, calcium carbonates) formed here a huge travertine shield with a sloping dome in the northern part. On the surface there is only a smaller part of the shield, about 50,000 m2, its entire southern part - about 300,000 m2, is covered by a layer of soil and volcanic ash more than a meter thick. The thickness of travertines reaches 10 m, the total volume is 1.5-2 million m3.

On the northern and northwestern periphery of the travertine shield and in the thermal swamp, several dozen small hot springs emerge, giving rise to the Termalny stream. The flow rate of individual sources is up to 0.5 l/s, the maximum temperature is 75°. In the body of the dome, cavities with a diameter of up to half a meter and a depth of more than 3 m are formed, flooded hot water. From the west and southwest the dome is surrounded by warm swamps. The apparent flow rate of the boiler sources now does not exceed 7 l/s. It is obvious that most of the thermal water is unloaded into previously formed sediments and flows towards the river in the form of a powerful heated ground flow. Hot. At the top of the dome there is a dry crater with a diameter of 5 m and a depth of 1.5 m. In 1931, according to the observations of B.I. Piipa, the funnel was filled to the brim with boiling water with a temperature of 72°. By 1951, the water level dropped by 0.8 m, and by 1961 - by 2.5 m, while the temperature dropped to 64°. By 1985 the boiler was completely dry. The natural process of degradation was accelerated by the influence of wells drilled in 1959 in the immediate vicinity.

In 1958-59, in order to explore boron-bearing waters, which were then considered a strategic raw material, 4 wells were drilled along the alignment from the boiler to the southeast to the river. Hot. The wells provided valuable hydrogeological information about the nature of the Nalychevo thermal baths.

Well No. 1 (70 m north of the boiler) opened water-bearing cracks at depths of 25, 57 and 105 m and self-flowed with a flow rate of up to 3 l/s and a temperature of 75°C.

Well No. 2 discovered a water inflow in the range of 40-160 m and was abandoned in emergency flow mode with a maximum flow rate of 75 l/s at a temperature of 68°C. Attempts to plug the well were unsuccessful, because... water flowed through the annulus. A funnel formed at the site of the well. By 1992, the flow rate had decreased to 6 l/s. The outflow with a gradual decrease in flow rate continued until 1994.

Now at the site of the well there is a funnel with hot water with underground drainage. The water pouring out over three decades formed a clearing of 20,000 m2 in size in the former birch forest, covered with a layer of ferruginous travertine up to 1 m. Over 30 years, about 3000 m3 of sediment was deposited. Essentially, a new travertine shield is being formed. In 1000 years, its volume could approach the volume of the natural shield.

Well No. 3, already at a depth of the first meters, encountered free-flowing water with a temperature of 40° (ground flow from the boiler), and at a depth of 134 m, water with a temperature of 58° was discovered, self-flow from the well began. The well flow rate was low - less than 3 l/s.

Well No. 4 near the Goryachaya River discovered warm water at a depth of 4.5 m. At a depth of 9 m the temperature reached 40°. When deepening to 20 m, the water level in the well rose and the temperature dropped to 10°. The well was stopped.

The drilling results, confirmed by geophysical research data, show that the main discharge of thermal waters, mainly hidden, occurs in the Kotla area, from where the hot ground flow is directed to the Goryachaya River, where thermal water outlets are observed along a kilometer on the floodplain terrace.

Abundant deposition of various travertines is a distinctive feature of the thermal springs of the Big Cauldron. These are ocher orange-brown sediments containing large amounts of iron and arsenic, deposited near the water outlet, and layered and sintered carbonate sediments of a brownish-yellow color, almost raw, on the periphery of the shield. Travertine deposition occurs due to degassing and cooling of thermal waters upon reaching the surface. First, ferruginous-arsenic sediments fall, and then carbonate sediments. Arsenic ores are being formed.

The chemical composition of travertines is given in Table No. 3. In addition, spectral analysis revealed antimony, germanium, ytterbium, barium, strontium in ferruginous sediments, and nickel, molybdenum, antimony, barium, strontium, and vanadium in carbonate sediments.

Goryacherechensky springs. Below the mouth of the stream. Kotelny's left-bank floodplain terrace comes close to the river, leaving a narrow, rarely more than 50 m strip of floodplain. Here, for 1 km at the foot of the terrace and on the surface of the floodplain, there are many hot springs, which are concentrated in 5 relatively isolated groups. They all look alike. Weak springs form small shallow reservoirs and short warm streams that flow immediately into a cold river. Around them are thermal swamps or dry pebble thermal areas with oppressed vegetation. The beds of the streams are overgrown with green thermophilic algae, and the pebbles along the banks are covered with efflorescences of white salts. The maximum temperature of 54° was measured at the source of the highest group. Temperatures prevail at 40-45°. The total visible flow rate of the sources is ~34 l/s. (Consumption of individual groups from 4 to 14 l/s.) Hidden unloading into the river and river sediments up to 70 l/s.

In terms of chemical composition, these are diluted and slightly modified waters from the Bolshoy Kotlo springs and well No. 2. The mineralization of the waters gradually decreases from the upper to the lower group of sources from 3.5 to 1.3 g/l.

According to all data, these sources are a discharge of the near-surface ground flow of thermal waters from rising springs in the area of ​​the Big Cauldron.

2. Issharpeners Yellow (Zheltorechenskie)

On the right bank of the river. Yellow, 600 m from the mouth, at the foot of the above-floodplain terrace, there is a thermal area measuring 150x80 m. There are no shrubs here, thickets of shelomaynik are replaced by low grass, wild onions, mosses, some areas are completely devoid of vegetation, drying up stream beds and pebbles are covered with white efflorescences of salts. At the western end of the site, in the wall of a depression 6 m in diameter and 0.4 m deep, filled with warm water, several small griffins with a temperature of 42° are knocked out. Rare gas bubbles are released. The surface of the water is covered with a film of thermophilic algae, and a stream originates here. The banks of the reservoir and stream are composed of yellow and dark brown travertines. The composition of the water differs little from the water from well No. 2 near the Big Cauldron. Mineralization here is higher than on the river. Hot. The total flow rate of the sources is 5 l/s, hidden unloading is up to 20 l/s.

On the bank of the river Hot, between the mouths of the Zheltaya River and the stream. Fresh is the most remote group of thermal springs. A heavily swampy heated area with dispersed outlets of hydrotherms stretches here along the river for 300 m. In many places, under a thin turf with bright green grass, a liquid yellow-orange mass is hidden, similar to a clay solution with a temperature of up to 39.8 °. Cold streams originating under a structural terrace composed of glacial deposits heat up to 30-32° in the thermal swamp. The flow rate of warm streams is 1-3 l/s. Well-defined thermal griffins are found only at the source of the southernmost stream. The water temperature in them is 36°. In terms of the composition of the waters, these springs are almost identical to the Yellow ones. These two groups of sources belong to a separate source of discharge of hydrotherms of the Nalychevsky type, associated with the fault zone along which the river valley has been mined. Yellow.

3. Thaw springs

Talovaya springs (the name was given by B.I. Piip, who discovered the springs in 1934) are located 6 km north of Nalychevskiye, on the left side of the river. Porozhistoy 2.5 km from its confluence with the river. Puck. The springs emerge at levels of 390-400 m along the inclined slope of the valley in four isolated groups. The most interesting in all respects is, of course, the eastern group - “Talovy Kotel”. Perhaps this is the most picturesque group of springs in the Park. In a vast clearing surrounded by a dense birch forest, two bright orange travertine domes, 13 m high from the foot to the point where they adjoin the slope and 45 m in diameter each, stand out in contrast. The twenty-meter space between the domes and their bases are swampy. Warm streams flow down the surface of the domes and get lost in the swamps. They originate in springs above the domes or on their slopes. These are funnel-shaped depressions or cracks filled with clear water with temperatures up to 32°. The springs slightly carbonate. The total visible flow rate of these sources is 4 l/s. It is clear that the hidden runoff is much greater.

250 m to the west of the domes there is a small, 20 m in diameter, swamp with puddles of warm (28°) water. 250 m further, in the bend of the slope, above the dry surface of the terrace, there is a swampy thermal area overgrown with thick grass with a diameter of ~70 m, on which more than a dozen springs emerge with a temperature of 27-28°. They look like puddles with a flat bottom, covered with orange sediment, with funnels from which streams of water are knocked out. Streams flow from the site, disappearing into the pebbles after 50-100 m. Orange travertines are deposited in their beds.

350 m southwest there are two springs with temperatures of 33 and 38° (maximum for Talov springs). They emerge in slope recesses in large warm puddles, the bottom of which is covered with an orange muddy mass, and the surface is covered with a yellow film of thermal algae. These springs also give rise to a stream with a travertine bed, which is also lost in the pebbles.

The total flow rate of Talovaya springs is about 6 l/s. Part of the thermal waters are discharged into river sediments and form a ground flow of thermal mineral waters directed towards Shaybny springs.

The water of the Talov springs, unlike the Nalychevo springs, has a pleasant salty taste. They differ little in chemical composition. The dome springs have a maximum salinity (5.8 g/L), almost twice that of the maximum temperature springs (3.2 g/L). Of the specific medicinal components, they contain silicic acid, arsenous and metaboric acid. Spectral analysis revealed scandium, phosphorus, manganese, and copper in them. Comparing current state sources with descriptions of 1937, 1954, 1960 it can be argued that they are in the process of dying out.

4. Washer sources

Shaibnye springs are located on the right bank of the river. Shaybnoy, 500 m above the confluence of the river. Threshold. Here, on the surface of the first river terrace and under its steep slope, mineral springs flow out with a temperature of 16-19°, abundantly depositing orange-brown sediment of iron and arsenic hydroxides. Just like at Talovye springs, the discrepancy between the low flow rate of the sources and large quantities their deposits. Ocher sediments with a layer of up to 1.5 m cover an area of ​​more than 2500 m2. Significantly large areas are hidden under the soil. The springs have the form of flat-bottomed reservoirs with a diameter of up to 5 m with funnel-shaped depressions from which weak carbonating griffins are knocked out, wetlands, and drainless carbonating funnels. The main source with a flow rate of 0.3 l/s comes out at the edge of the terrace. Flowing down the slope, the water deposits a fan of ocher sediments 10 m wide at the foot. The total visible flow rate of the sources is 2-2.5 l/s.

The composition of the water of the springs differs from the Talovy and Nalychevo springs essentially only in the amount of mineralization. The composition of ocher deposits is no different. thermal mineral water treatment

To the north, for 2 km at the foot of the first terrace, there are outcrops of mineralized (up to 1 g/l) springs with a temperature of 8°C and a flow rate of 1-1.5 l/s. Most likely, they are derivatives of the Talovye thermal springs, and the Shaybnye springs are independent outlets associated with the intersection of fault zones along the Shaybnaya and Porozhistaya rivers.

5. Local history sources

The name of the sources and the first description belong to P.G. Novograblenov, who visited them in 1929. Springs come out on both banks of the river. Talovaya is 2 km above the mouth. They can be traced in the swampy floodplain for 100 m. The floodplain expands at the point where the springs emerge up to 50 m, is warmed up and in many places is devoid of vegetation. The terrace above the floodplain is overgrown with birch forest. Near the outlet of the springs, alluvial sands and pebbles are cemented by dark brown calcareous-ferruginous deposits of the thermal baths. The springs are oozing outlets or flat-bottomed shallow saucer-shaped pools with shallow gryphons and gas outlets at the bottom. The surface of the water in pools and individual springs is overgrown with reddish-brown thermophilic algae.

The temperature of the springs is 45-53°. Upstream around the bend in the river on the right bank there is a thermal swamp with a spring with a temperature of 25°. 50 years ago, the temperature at this point according to measurements by B.I. Piipa was 57°. The apparent flow rate of local historical sources is ~7 l/s. The hidden discharge of the thermal baths was traced by geophysical methods along the river valley above and below the springs; it reaches 20 l/s.

The water of the springs is bitter-salty. Its chemical composition is similar to that of the Nalychevo thermal baths, but differs in significantly higher mineralization, up to 8 g/l (the maximum for all thermal baths in the region). Local history sources, as well as sources on the river. Hot, travertines do not deposit. It is possible that they are also a discharge of thermal ground flow, and the bedrock outcrops are hidden under loose sediments.

6. Vershinsky mineral springs

Vershinsky mineral springs were studied by V.E. Donchenko in 1991 during a hydrogeological survey. They are located in the valley of the Yellow River, 4 km from the mouth. Outcrops of mineral waters are confined to the zone of thermally altered (silicified, pyritized, alunitized) rocks at the contact with the intrusive massif. The springs have the appearance of weakly carbonated gryphons in ferruginous travertines and dispersed seepage of mineral waters depositing ocher sediments. Output temperature 4-5°, flow rate 1-1.5 l/s. The water is clear, sour, and pleasant to the taste. This is carbonic, ferrous, low-mineralized water of sulfate-calcium composition. It differs sharply both in composition and in balneological properties from all other Nalychevo waters. The springs are easily accessible and can complement the area's already wide range of mineral waters.

Verkhne-Talovsky springs are located in the upper reaches of the river. Talovaya, 700 m from the pass to the river valley. Tea. Here, on the left bank of the river, in close proximity to the riverbed, there are two griffins measuring 2x3 m and 0.5 m and up to 1 m deep. The springs formed a cone of ferruginous travertines. Water flows over its surface into the river. Water temperature 6.5°, flow rate ~0.3-0.5 l/s. The water is clear and sour with a ferrous aftertaste. This is sulfate-calcium slightly acidic ferruginous water with a mineralization of ~2 g/l. In terms of composition, conditions of discharge and formation, these springs are similar to the Vershinsky ones and can also be classified as medicinal table waters.

7. Kekhkui (Kitkhoi) thermomineral springs

Kekhkui (Kitkhoi) thermomineral springs have been known since the time of P.T. Novograblenova. Almost all subsequent researchers of the area paid attention to them. They are remarkable in that both in terms of the composition of the waters and the geological conditions of formation, they combine the features of the thermal baths of the Nalychevskaya basin and the Shumninskaya area. The Kekhkuy springs, like the Nalychevo springs, are formed in the contact zone of an ancient intrusive massif, and their outlets, like the outlets of the Aag, Shumninsky, and Koryak springs, are controlled by a powerful regional fault in the northwestern direction (Kitkhoi fault).

The sources are discharged in the river valley. Kekhkuy, at the foot of the Dome volcano, 7.3 km west of its peak. Outlets of thermal waters with temperatures from 20 to 33° are observed on both banks of the river over a distance of 200 m. The main outlets are concentrated on a section of ~100 m. Sources in the form of small weakly gassing griffins and in the form of dispersed linear outlets are located in a ledge or on the surface of a three-meter terrace. They give rise to warm streams and form “baths” with a diameter of up to 5 m and a depth of 0.5 m. The baths are overgrown with a film of brown thermophilic algae. The springs deposit light gray carbonate travertines and ferruginous sediments. In the cliff of the right-bank terrace, ancient travertines 0.5-1 m thick are exposed, which indicates the long existence of the springs.

The flow rates of individual sources do not exceed 0.5 l/s. The total flow rate is "7-9 l/s. The composition of the waters is given in Table 1 No. 11. These are thermal, carbon dioxide, mineralized (3-5 g/l) bicarbonate-chloride sodium, boron mineral waters. Unlike Nalychevsky, they have very little arsenic, and they can be used as "table" water.

The springs are located away from the most popular tourist trails. Their undoubtedly high balneological and recreational value is underestimated against the background of the more spectacular and accessible Nalychevo hydrotherms located nearby.

8. Dzendzur fumarole field (Upper Dzendzurskie springs)

The first mention of these terms was made in the work of B.I. Piipa (1937), most detailed description- in the report of V.E. Donchenko (1991).

Fumaroles are located in a destroyed crater on the southwestern slope of the Dzendzur volcano, 2 km from the summit. The fumarole site with a diameter of ~20 m is located 50 m from the edge of the modern basaltic lava flow; it is composed of sandy-clayey rocks (products of gas thermal processing). At the edge of the site, a steam-gas mixture and a fountain of water spray noisily burst out from the blocky debris. Springs emerge from under the boulders different temperatures. The water collects in a stream, flowing into a funnel with a diameter of 10 m, filled with greenish muddy water. A gas (96% CO2) with the smell of hydrogen sulfide is released through the bottom of the funnel. The temperature and flow rates of the stream and springs vary depending on the intensity of snowmelt and surface runoff.

The water in the funnel and springs are typical fumaroles of surface formation: strongly acidic (pH ~ 3), slightly mineralized, sulfate, iron-aluminum-hydrogen. These are surface waters saturated with fumarolic gases. The connection of these thermal baths with the Nalychevo or Nizhne-Dzendzurskie (beyond the northern border of the park) is not clear. They are of scientific and educational interest. Visited by tourists. Such waters are not used in balneology.

9. Aag sources

Aag springs are located in the upper reaches of the left source of the river. Clean. They were discovered and first described in 1962 by volcanologist E.A. Vakin. Outlets of thermal and mineral waters can be traced in the riverbed and along the banks of the river for a kilometer. In places where water comes out, bright orange sediments of iron hydroxides are abundantly deposited. In the riverbed, very durable conglomerates are exposed, consisting of andesite and liparite boulders with tuff cement impregnated with iron hydroxides.

There are two groups of springs: “Upper” - with numerous small griffins of mineral waters with a temperature of 5-11 ° and, 300 m below, “Lower” - with larger thermal springs with temperatures up to 39 °.

The springs are knocked out of the channel boulders, forming streams and chains of stepped pools, at the bottom and along the banks of which a layer of orange viscous sediment is deposited, or they form characteristic cones from the same sediments up to 1 m high with funnels on the tops, from the depths of which water overflows and bubbles rise gas (almost pure CO2). Several thermal griffins lower group located on a steep bank at a height of up to 3 m above the river. The flow rates of individual sources do not exceed 0.2 l/s. The total flow rate is 15-17 l/s.

The water of the springs belongs to the extremely rare and balneologically valuable hydrocarbonate-magnesium type. It is highly gas-saturated, sour and pleasant to the taste. The water of the cold springs of the Upper group contains a lot of iron. This type of water is generally unique.

The springs are located away from the paths; the path to them is blocked by dense thickets of elfin wood. They are hardly visited.

10. Izotovskie springs

This is how these sources are named in B.V.’s report. Kovalev (1958) and quite justifiably. Only such a persistent researcher as E.M. Izotov could decide to penetrate the impassable gorge of the upper reaches of the river. Noisy. Her report (1954) described two thermal springs in the middle part of the gorge.

At the foot of the volcanic ridge, the river valley. Noisy sharply narrows, the channel turns into a narrow gap with vertical walls, above which the river falls from a rocky ledge with a twenty-meter waterfall. Above the waterfall, the river flows into a gorge with steep, rocky walls on the right side. Only in the lower reaches of the gorge there are separate areas of boulder-pebble floodplain.

Outlets of thermal waters are found in the gorge for 4 km. The lowest ones, with a temperature of 43°, are observed in the ledge of the waterfall. These are streams that emerge from thin cracks in the andesite lava breccias that make up the ledge. The springs in the gorge look like warm “baths” in the riverbed pebbles, from which short streams flow, or carbonating griffins on the tops of small cones composed of orange ferruginous deposits of thermal waters. The pebbles at the water outlets are cemented with iron hydroxides. The maximum temperature - 51° was recorded in the middle part of the gorge. There are more than a dozen sources in total. The flow rate of individual outlets does not exceed 0.5 l/s, the total flow rate can be estimated at 10-15 l/s.

In the upper reaches of the gorge, 4 km from the Koryak pass, there is no large group cold mineral springs similar to the Koryak Narzans. These are mineralized (up to 3 g/l) weakly acidic hydrocarbonate-sulfate calcium-magnesium carbonate waters with a high content of silicic acid. Izotovsky springs have very valuable balneological properties, but are currently accessible only to well-prepared visitors.

11. Noisy sources

Noisy sources were first mentioned in the report of E.M. Izotova in 1954. They are located on the right bank of the river. Noisy, 1.6 km southeast of height 966. The springs are difficult to access and rarely visited.

At the source discharge site, the river emerges from a narrow gap in the andesite rocks and the valley widens sharply. The bedrock slopes and the surface of the only terrace are covered with volcanic sand and coarse scree. Highly gassing, low-yield springs with a temperature of 10-20° come out of vertical cracks in the bedrock bank, on the surface of the terrace above the floodplain, in the ledge of the terrace, in the floodplain and even in the river bed. total area area with water and gas outlets reaches 17,000 m2. Gas and water from sources have a strong smell of hydrogen sulfide, and native sulfur precipitates from it. Stream beds, boulders and pebbles are covered with a loose light yellow crust of sulfur, volcanic sand near the outcrops is cemented with sulfur. The springs on the surface of the terrace also deposit orange ocher sediment, forming small tubercles. In the bedrock bank and in the ledge of the terrace there are outcrops of native sulfur, which cements the sand, forms crusts, sagging and entire layers up to 10 cm thick. This is evidence of a more powerful unloading that existed here in the past. The total flow rate of the sources (there are about a dozen) is 1-3 l/s. Despite the pungent smell, the water from the springs tastes pleasant.

12. Chistinskie (Clean) springs

This small, but very impressive and interesting in many respects group of sources is located in the upper reaches of the rightmost source of the river. Clean at the southern foot of a hill with very steep slopes, composed of extrusion of andesite-dacite (height 966). Found the sources of B.V. Kovalev in 1958. In the area of ​​the springs, the river (stream) flows along an almost horizontal area measuring 50x30 m, covered with pebbles and volcanic sand, cemented in many places with native sulfur. The eastern (upper) part of the site is covered with a layer of sulfur, which has formed a dry mound up to half a meter high. The springs are located mainly on the left bank. In the center of the site there are two powerful griffins - round funnels with a diameter of 50-70 cm with a sandy bottom, through which water bubbles out from big amount gas The temperature in the griffins is 8°. At the edge of the sulfur hillock, springs form short streams. There are also outlets of gas and water on the right bank and in the bed of the stream. All sources intensively deposit sulfur. There is a smell of hydrogen sulfide. The total visible flow rate of the sources is 1-1.5 l/s, temperature 8°, latent discharge - 15-17 l/s.

The water has a “narzan” (sulfate-calcium) composition. It is very carbonated and pleasant to drink. The composition of water and gas is given in table. 1, 2. Chistinsky waters differ from all other sources by very low (219 mg/l) mineralization. Apparently they are of mofet origin: fresh surface waters are saturated with gas from rising jets.

The springs are actively visited by tourists.

13. Koryak Narzans

At the northern foot of the Koryak volcano, in the upper reaches of the right sources of the river. Noisy and the source of the river. On the right Nalycheva there is a large group of cold (10-15°) mineral springs. The springs were first studied by volcanologist Yu.P. Masurenkov in 1963. Numerous high-flow (liters per second) sources are dispersed over an area of ​​more than 4 km2. The springs emerge in the sloping sides of shallow ravines, depositing ocher sediments of iron hydroxides. They look like small flat-bottomed reservoirs, griffins in steep-walled depressions or exits from cracks in cemented sand and boulders, which give rise to entire streams of mineral water. Above the area of ​​modern discharge, the same sediments and sands cemented by iron hydroxides lie under young volcanic scoria, which indicates the long-term existence of the sources.

The total flow rate of the sources can exceed 50 l/s. The water of the springs is pleasant to the taste; it belongs to the valuable, rarely found hydrocarbonate-magnesium type of carbonic water.

A tourist trail passes through the springs, going from the Avacha Pass to the Nalychevo Springs. Early summer this is a favorite vacation spot for skiers - the snow lies here until the end of June.

The Right-Shumninsky springs were discovered and described during geological surveys since 1987 by geologist V.M. Filonov. They are located 1.5 km above the mouth of the river. Right Noisy. Water discharge occurs over a distance of 750 m along both banks of the river in the form of weak linear outlets and small springs forming streams and “baths”. Water temperature 18°, total flow rate ~5 l/s. Water mineralization ~2 g/l. The composition is hydrocarbonate-sulfate magnesium-calcium with a high iron content. The water is clear, colorless and odorless, brackish and pleasant to the taste. The springs are interesting only as the northernmost outlets of the mineral waters of the Shumninskaya area. Due to relative inaccessibility, they are not visited. In areas less rich in mineral waters, they could have balneological significance.

Conclusion

Thermal waters are an important natural resource.

Knowledge of the peculiarities of their formation allows us to assume the presence of thermal springs on fairly vast areas of land, which significantly expands the area of ​​their use in various sectors of the economy.

The use of thermal waters to treat diseases began quite a long time ago. Accordingly, in this area this moment A significant number of methods for using thermal waters have been developed. This is facilitated by their different temperatures and different material composition in different regions of the planet.

However, the possibilities of using thermal springs are not limited to this. Recently, thermal waters have been used quite widely to generate thermal and electrical energy. So far, geothermal power plants operate only in areas where hot water emerges with a temperature slightly less than 100°C (Iceland, New Zealand, Kamchatka, USA). However, in the future it is possible to use water with a lower temperature. Producing energy at a geothermal power plant does not produce waste and, therefore, does not pollute the environment. The development of such industries in the modern world is a priority. But the extensive use of thermal waters led to their depletion, and the rapid development of industry in general and the intensification Agriculture through the use of ever new types of fertilizers, pollution. Therefore, like any other type of exhaustible natural resource, thermal waters need to be used wisely and economically. And like any other groundwater - in condition monitoring, protection from pollution and purification.

Bibliography

1. Klimentov P.P. Kononov V.M. Methodology of hydrogeological research - M., 1978.

2. Ovchinnikov A.M. General hydrogeology - M., 1955.

3. Plotnikov N.I. Search and exploration of fresh groundwater - M., 1985.

4. Vsevolzhsky V.A. Fundamentals of hydrogeology - M., 2007.

5. Kiryukhin V.A., Korotkov A.I., Pavlov A.N. General hydrogeology. Textbook for universities - M., 1988.

6. Zektser I.S. Groundwater as a component of the environment - M., 2001.

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Eocene exc (Stavropol region) iodine J up to 90 mg/l.

K 1 J iodine up to 70 mg/l, Sr up to 700 mg/l.

Thermal waters Neogene: self-flowing up to 50 l/s or more, T 70–95° C.

Prikumsk K 2– steam-water mixture T 104.5°C.

K 1– steam-water mixture T 117 ° C.

Widespread term. waters (Chechnya, etc.)

Features of the hydrogeological conditions of the basin that definitely need to be played out!

1. The presence in the zone of forward folding of the Caucasus and in the marginal zone of the basin of numerous young tectonic disturbances associated with the era of Alpine folding.

2. Numerous established facts of significant discharge of deep (K, J, possibly deeper) fluids through zones of tectonic disturbances: thermal springs, sources with relatively high mineralization of water and a specific composition of components, including micro., especially widespread CO 2 ( KMV area). High conc. B (up to 600 mg/l) as an indicator of the influx of deep gas-vapor fluids.

3. Widespread development in the Terek-Sunzha zone and adjacent areas of abnormally high reservoir pressures in Paleogene and especially in Cretaceous deposits, which are most likely also associated with subvertical filtration of deep fluids. ???

4. The most widespread (almost up to the Caspian coast) distribution of groundwater in the sediments of the Baku complex with low (mainly up to 1 g/l, only in a narrow coastal strip up to 7 g/l) mineralization, while in the overlying Khazar complexes and Khvalynsk deposits, the mineralization of groundwater is variegated, in Sec. points up to 20 g/l or more. This indirectly indicates that the Baku horizon, due to the presence of low-permeable clayey rocks in the upper part of the section and in the overlying Khazar and Khvalynian rocks, lies in a zone of relatively difficult water exchange of the 1st hydrogeological floor. In this connection, interaction with ground and upper pressure waters. horizons containing partially mineralized waters of continental salinity is relatively difficult and does not affect the composition of the subsection. waters of the Baku complex. Such a “partial” inversion of the hydrogeochemical section is very typical for artesian basins of the arid zone (Syr Darya, Amudara basins, etc.) The same in Apsh. and Akch. with miner. up to 5 g/l.

The sub-Maikop floor of the central part of the basin (for all aquifer complexes) is characterized by two regional features:

The presence of pronounced high pressure pressures with subsection pressures. water up to 3000-4000 m a. century (up to 2000 and more above the surface of the earth according to I. G. Kissin)

The presence of high temperatures, varying from 55° at depths of about 500 m to 170°C or more at depth. 3500 m.

Area, Relief: Borders. Ciscaucasia foothill region - up to 1500 m and more, Terek-Sunzha uplift - up to 500 -750 m, central part basin – approximately up to 100–250 m. Caspian region up to –28 m.

Drains: the rivers Terek, Kuma and their few tributaries.

Precipitation, temperature???

Upper hydrogeological stage: Quaternary, Neogene-Quaternary and Pliocene and Middle Miocene (N 1 2) predominantly sandy-clayey deposits with a thickness in the troughs of the Terek-Sunzha zone and in the central part of the basin up to 3000-3500 m or more and wedge out towards the Karpinsky swell and partially into center uplifts T-S region, where directly Maykop clays occur on the surface.

Lower water supply 1st floor are clays of the Maikop Formation (P 3 –N 1 1) thick. up to 1500–2000 m and more in the center of the basin. Thursday sediments, as well as the Absheron and Akchegyl stages (Pliocene N 2 1-2). Middle Miocene???.

Quaternary deposits are represented by cover, alluvial, aeolian and alluvial-marine and marine in the coastal part and Lower Quaternary deposits. transgressions of the Caspian Sea (Khvalyn. and Khazar. tiers

Absheron and Akchegyl are also transg. Caspian Sea.

Characteristic structure with the presence of cont., approx. Morsk. and marine sediment facies. Probable sustained aquitard–clay deposits of the Absheron (“jumps” with mineralization).

The depth of the groundwater level varies from 50–100 m or more in the foothill zone, to 10–20 m on the Stvropol uplift, to 5–10 m or less in the center of the basin. and up to 1-3 m in the Caspian part. Pressure water levels of the 1st floor in the lower areas of the center of the basin and in the Caspian region up to self-flow.

Supply of groundwater and pressure water on the 1st floor due to inf. atm. precipitation and flow are most intense in the foothill zone, due to absorption from rivers and irrigation systems. channels and to the center. and Prikasp. bottom-up parts. Unloading into the river network and into the center. and esp. in the Caspian part due to evaporation.

Supply quantities…….Unloading……..

Soil mineralization. water…………. In the Caspian steppes up to 10 -50 and even up to 100 g/l (salt marshes). It would be more correct to say that in the central part of the basin the groundwater has a “variegated” mineralization. In the “near” Caspian region (the so-called black lands), in areas where aeolian sands are distributed, lenses of low-mineralized (up to 1.5 g/l) waters resting on saline groundwater are widespread

Self-flowing pressure waters in Quaternary and Pliocene deposits are the basis of water supply for the territory. Terek-Kuma basin. The productivity of wells during self-flow, depending on the composition of the rocks, ranges from fractions of l/s to 30-40 l/s. (on average? 2 l/s).

Upper and middle Miocene (N 1 2-3) last supra-Maikop approximately 300 m.

In the sub-Maikop (P) g/g floor of the basin, aquifer complexes are identified: Paleocene-Eocene, Upper Cretaceous, Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous, Middle Jurassic and Paleozoic, silty-clayey and carbonate rocks. The total thickness in the central part of the basin is up to 1500–2000 m and baud. Main aquicludes: clay top. and Wednesday Albian (K 1), and clays of the Bathonian stage (J 2) upper cf. Jurassic (Oil and gas bearing interval of the basin).

All these deposits lie directly from the surface on the northern slope of the Caucasus. Numerous sources of fresh water with different flow rates are associated with them, including carbonate rocks at the top. Cretaceous and Jurassic with flow rates up to 1000–2000 l/s and more.

Well flow rates are 0.1–0.5 l/s. The top is made of limestone. chalk. complex on the monoclinal uplifts of the Cis-Caucasian zone and in Dagestan (south-east) well flow rates. up to 460–800 l/s.

The Podmaikop floor of the basin (for all complexes) is characterized by two (regional) features:

– the presence of pronounced AVPD, which is associated with high calculated claims. sub-heads water up to 3000–4500 m.a. in., (up to 2000 m and more above the surface of the earth) in Ter. Sun. region (according to I.G. Kissin).

– the presence of high temperatures, varying from 55 at depths of about 500 m to more than 170 ° C. on ch. 3500 m

Points of view on the formation of AVPD. !!!

Mineral ledge

Industrial water- natural highly concentrated water solution various elements. For example: solutions of nitrates, sulfates, carbonates, brines of alkali halides. Industrial water contains components whose composition and resources are sufficient to extract these components on an industrial scale. It is possible to obtain metals, corresponding salts, and microelements from industrial waters.

The groundwater, having a temperature of 20°C and higher due to the entry of heat from the deep zones of the earth's crust. Thermal waters come to the surface in the form of numerous hot springs, geysers and steam jets. Due to increased chemical and biological activity, underground thermal waters circulating in rocks are predominantly mineral. In many cases, it is advisable to use groundwater simultaneously for energy, district heating, balneology, and sometimes even for the extraction of chemical elements and their compounds.

Wells where they are mined mineral water, constitute a separate group of groundwater sources. Mineral water is distinguished by a high content of active elements of mineral origin and special properties that determine them therapeutic effect on the human body.

Thermal and hyperthermal(with temperatures above 400 C) waters occur in regions with active underground volcanic activity. Thermal waters are used as a coolant for heating systems in residential buildings and industrial buildings and at geothermal power plants. A distinctive feature of thermal waters is considered to be a high content of minerals and saturation with gases.

Classification of first, second and third order structures in geosynclinal areas, their main elements.

Classification of first, second and third order structures in platform areas, their main elements.

Distinctive features of oil and gas provinces, the largest oil and gas provinces in Russia.

Russia occupies an intermediate position between the poles of “super consumer” – the United States and “super producer” – Saudi Arabia. Currently the oil industry Russian Federation ranks 2nd in the world. In terms of production, we are second only to Saudi Arabia. In 2002, hydrocarbons were produced: oil - 379.6 million tons, natural gas - 594 billion m 3.

On the territory of the Russian Federation there are three large oil and gas provinces: West Siberian, Volga-Ural and Timan-Pechersk.

West Siberian province.

West Siberian is the main province of the Russian Federation. The largest oil and gas basin in the world. It is located within the West Siberian Plain on the territory of Tyumen, Omsk, Kurgan, Tomsk and partly Sverdlovsk, Chelyabinsk, Novosibirsk regions, Krasnoyarsk and Altai territories, with an area of ​​about 3.5 million km 2 The oil and gas content of the basin is associated with sediments of Jurassic and Cretaceous age. Most of the oil deposits are located at a depth of 2000-3000 meters. Oil from the West Siberian oil and gas basin is characterized by a low content of sulfur (up to 1.1%), and paraffin (less than 0.5%), a high content of gasoline fractions (40-60%), and an increased amount of volatile substances.

Currently, 70% of Russian oil is produced in Western Siberia. The main volume is extracted by pumping; flowing production accounts for no more than 10%. It follows from this that the main deposits are at a late stage of development, which makes us think about an important problem in the fuel industry - the aging of deposits. This conclusion is confirmed by data for the country as a whole.

There are several dozen large deposits in Western Siberia. Among them are such well-known ones as Samotlorskoye, Mamontovskoye, Fedorovskoye, Ust-Balykskoye, Ubinskoye, Tolumskoye, Muravlenkovskoye, Sutorminskoye, Kholmogorskoye, Talinskoye, Mortymya-Teterevskoye and others. Most of them are located in the Tyumen region - a kind of core of the region. In the republican division of labor, it stands out as Russia’s main base for supplying its national economic complex with oil and natural gas. More than 220 million tons of oil are produced in the Tyumen region, which is more than 90% of the total production in Western Siberia and more than 55% of the total production in Russia. Analyzing this information, one cannot help but draw the following conclusion: the oil production industry of the Russian Federation is characterized by an extremely high concentration in the leading region.

For oil industry The Tyumen region is characterized by a decrease in production volumes. Having reached a maximum of 415.1 million tons in 1988, by 1990 oil production decreased to 358.4 million tons, that is, by 13.7%, and the downward trend in production continues to this day.

The main oil companies operating in Western Siberia are LUKOIL, YUKOS, Surgutneftegaz, Sibneft, SIDANKO, TNK.

Volga-Ural province.

The second most important oil province is the Volga-Ural region. It is located in the eastern part of the European territory of the Russian Federation, within the republics of Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, Udmurtia, as well as Perm, Orenburg, Kuibyshev, Saratov, Volgograd, Kirov and Ulyanovsk regions. Oil deposits are located at a depth of 1600 to 3000 m, i.e. closer to the surface compared to Western Siberia, which somewhat reduces drilling costs. The Volga-Ural region accounts for 24% of the country's oil production.

The vast majority of oil and associated gas (more than 4/5) of the region is produced by Tataria, Bashkiria, and the Kuibyshev region. Oil production is carried out at the Romashkinskoye, Novo-Elkhovskoye, Chekmagushskoye, Arlanskoye, Krasnokholmskoye, Orenburgskoye and other fields. A significant part of the oil produced in the fields of the Volga-Ural oil and gas region is supplied through oil pipelines to local oil refineries located mainly in Bashkiria and the Kuibyshev region, as well as in other regions (Perm, Saratov, Volgograd, Orenburg).

The main oil companies operating in the Volga-Ural province: LUKOIL, Tatneft, Bashneft, YUKOS, TNK.

Timan-Pechersk province.

The third most important oil province is Timan-Pechersk. It is located within Komi, the Nenets Autonomous Okrug of the Arkhangelsk Region and partly in adjacent territories, bordering the northern part of the Volga-Ural oil and gas region. Together with the rest, the Timan-Pechersk oil region produces only 6% of the oil in the Russian Federation (Western Siberia and the Ural-Volga region - 94%). Oil production is carried out at the Usinskoye, Kharyaginskoye, Voyvozhskoye, Verkhne-Grubeshorskoye, Yaregskoye, Nizhne-Omrinskoye, Vozeiskoye and other fields. The Timan-Pechora region, like the Volgograd and Saratov regions, is considered quite promising. Oil production in Western Siberia is declining, and in the Nenets Autonomous Okrug hydrocarbon reserves comparable to those in Western Siberia have already been explored. According to American experts, the subsoil of the Arctic tundra stores 2.5 billion tons of oil.

Almost every field, and especially each of the oil and gas bearing areas, differs in its own characteristics in the composition of oil and therefore it is impractical to carry out processing using any “standard” technology. It is necessary to take into account the unique composition of oil to achieve maximum processing efficiency, for this reason it is necessary to build plants for specific oil and gas bearing areas. There is a close relationship between the oil and oil refining industries. However, the collapse Soviet Union caused the emergence new problem– severance of external economic ties of the oil industry. Russia found itself in an extremely disadvantageous position, because... is forced to export crude oil due to the imbalance in the oil and oil refining industries (the volume of refining in 2002 was 184 million tons), while prices for crude oil are much lower than for petroleum products. In addition, the low adaptability of Russian factories, when switching to oil that was previously transported to factories in neighboring republics, causes poor-quality processing and large product losses.

25. Methods for determining the age of geological bodies and reconstructing geological events of the past.

Geochronology (from ancient Greek γῆ - earth + χρόνος - time + λόγος - word, doctrine) is a set of methods for determining the absolute and relative age of rocks or minerals. The tasks of this science include determining the age of the Earth as a whole. From these positions, geochronology can be considered as part of general planetology.

Paleontological method The scientific geochronological method, which determines the sequence and date of stages in the development of the earth's crust and the organic world, arose at the end of the 18th century, when the English geologist Smith discovered in 1799 that layers of the same age always contain fossils of the same species. He also showed that the remains of ancient animals and plants are located (with increasing depth) in the same order, although the distances between the places where they are found are very large.

Stratigraphic method The stratigraphic method is based on a comprehensive study of the locations of geological (cultural) layers relative to each other. Based on whether the area of ​​rock under study is located above or below certain layers, its geological age can be determined.