Introduction

The Earth, like other planets, is part solar system. It is removed from the Sun by an average of 149.6 million km and revolves around it in a period equal to 365.25 solar average days.

The earth has the shape of a geoid, i.e. a figure bounded by the surface of the ocean, mentally extended across the continents in such a way that it remains perpendicular to the direction of gravity everywhere. “Heights above sea level” are measured from this surface. The exact shape of the geoid has not yet been determined.

For us, the inhabitants of the Earth, our planet is a gigantic body. Compared to the Earth, all the objects around us on its surface are negligible. However, compared to others celestial bodies, for example, with giant stars, she herself is a speck of dust, lost in the boundless space of the Universe.

And on this “speck of dust” - the Earth - there is a special, earthly rhythm of the arrival and loss of heat, the arrival of light, consisting of annual (seasonal) and daily (day and night) rhythms. The latter have a clear and varied expression. The daily and seasonal rhythms of changes in heat and light are directly related to changes in the temperature of soils, soils, water basins, air and all objects on the surface of the Earth, as well as changes in absolute and relative humidity, the course of development of vegetation and animal organisms -isms.

Earth consists of various substances - from the lightest gases to heavy metals. These substances are distributed extremely unevenly both over the surface of the Earth and in its interior. Chemical composition The earth is almost unexplored. Only the upper part of the earth's crust has been studied, i.e., approximately 5% of its volume. According to modern ideas, from the surface the earth's crust consists of half oxygen, and a quarter silicon. Its entire thickness consists of 99.79% oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium and hydrogen, and only 0.21% accounts for the remaining 105 known elements.

Within geographic envelope air, water, rocks that make up the earth's crust, and living organisms interact. This interaction in each specific case is determined by many factors. The results of interaction are not always and not everywhere unambiguous, but in general it is supported by the continuous flow of solar, cosmic and intraterrestrial energy into the geographic envelope.

The laws of the existence, formation and functioning of biological systems at all levels from organisms to the biosphere and their interaction with external conditions are studied by science - Ecology. It includes autecology, or the ecology of individuals, de-ecology, or the ecology of populations, synecology, or the ecology of communities, landscape ecology, etc.

The term “ecology” origin and interpretation

The term "ecology" is derived from two Greek words“oikos” - house, dwelling, habitat and “logos” - science, which literally means “the science of home, habitat,” about the relationship between living organisms and their environment. The term was introduced into science by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel in 1866 to denote the biological science that studies the relationships of organisms with the environment. . In the 2nd volume of his book “General Morphology of Organisms,” E. Haeckel gave the following definition of ecology as a science: “By ecology we understand the general science of the relationships of organisms with the environment, where we include, in a broad sense, all “conditions of existence.” -vaniya." They are partly organic, partly inorganic in nature; but both those and others... have very great importance for the forms of organisms, since they force them to adapt to themselves.”

In Russian, the word “ecology” was first mentioned in summary“General Morphology” by E. Haeckel - a small book published in 1868 under the editorship of I.I. Mechnikov.

E. Haeckel proposed the term “ecology” for its application exclusively in the field of biological sciences, mainly zoology. For a long time this term was used only in zoology and was little known further among scientists of other biological specialties. And only from the 20-40s of our century ecology became a holistic, independent scientific discipline.

In relation to the subject of study, the ecology of microorganisms, fungi, plants, animals and humans is distinguished. On the basis of industry they divide into agricultural, forestry, industrial (engineering) ecology. In addition, it is often called global ecology, the subject of which is the Earth's biosphere. The theoretical basis for these types of ecology is general ecology.

Currently, the word “ecology” has become very popular; it is most often used when talking about nature and its unfavorable state. The word “ecology” has become a mandatory term among politicians, journalists, sociologists, teachers, psychologists, and cultural figures. This term is used in combination with words such as family, society, city, culture, pedagogy, psychology, education, etc.

IN modern form ecology covers a very wide range of issues and is closely intertwined with the social, technical and human sciences. Ecology is considered as a universal, fundamental, complex science, rapidly developing and having great practical significance for all inhabitants of the planet.

There are several different interpretations contents of this term:

Ecology is one of the biological sciences that studies living systems in their interaction with their environment;

Ecology is a complex science that synthesizes data from the natural and social sciences about nature and its interaction with society;

Ecology is a special general scientific approach to the study of problems of interaction between organisms, biosystems and the environment (ecological approach);

Ecology is a set of scientific and practical problems of the relationship between man and nature (environmental problems).

KARAGANDA ECONOMIC UNIVERSITY

Rakhimzhanova R.I.

Isabaev A.S.

ECOLOGY

Educational and practical manual for distance learning for students of all specialties

KARAGANDA 2003

INTRODUCTION

Ecology has become for all humanity not only a science, but also a way of thinking, behavior, and a reality of action. It has become one of the aspects of humanism, including an understanding of the unity of man with nature, high culture, and intelligence.

The word “ecology” was first used by E. Haeckel, denoting the biological science that studies the relationship of organisms with their environment.

In accordance with the currently accepted classification, any change in the environment falls within the competence of ecology. One of the most important tasks of ecology is the optimization of relationships between humans, on the one hand, individual species and populations, ecosystems, on the other. The conservation of all species, populations and ecosystems on our planet is considered environmentally and economically feasible, but the concept of beneficial and harmful is untenable. Optimization of the relationship between man and nature is considered as a necessary condition for the existence of man with various relationships, which should manifest themselves in minimal damage to living organisms and inanimate nature. The emergence of environmental disasters on our planet indicates the need to reduce emissions of harmful substances into the environment and its pollution, to create low-waste and non-waste technologies, and to protect nature.

Environmental education and education of people is of great importance. Many people simply do not know about the impending disaster and the negative consequences caused by environmental pollution.

A concept consonant with the term “ecology”, in most cases, is any interaction between man and nature or deterioration in quality environment caused by human economic activity. Ecology as a science has its own goals, objects and research methods, as well as various directions: general ecology, applied ecology, population ecology, autecology, etc. There are two approaches: ecosystem and population. Ecosystem is based on the concept of an ecosystem - a collection of organisms and non-living components. With this approach, ecology is viewed as a science of systems, and any phenomenon being studied is of interest primarily because it is integral part ecosystems. Population draws attention to populations, i.e., collections of individuals of the same species inhabiting a certain space and living within the same biogeocenosis. In contrast to the ecosystem approach, the population approach is more prone to analytical explanation.

Currently, there is an idea that everything related to environmental pollution and reducing the harmful effects of human activity on nature is ecology. The basis of ecology is the study of the functioning of individuals, populations, communities, humans and their interactions with the environment under the influence of environmental factors, manifested in physical, chemical and biological changes. Here, any changes in individuals, populations, communities, people are unique indicators of the environment and its pollution.

A characteristic feature of ecology is that it is an interdisciplinary science. As people develop and master new disciplines, environmental knowledge should rise in an upward spiral.

1. Definitions of ecology

1.1 What is ecology? The term "ecology" (literally from the Greek oikos - dwelling, residence, house and logos - science) was proposed by Ernst Haeckel in 1866. It is a science that studies the organization and functioning of systems at various levels. Currently, modern ecology also studies the interaction of man and the biosphere, production with the natural environment and other problems.

Depending on the object and subject of research, ecology is divided into:

1. The part of biology that studies the relationships of organisms (individuals, populations, biocenoses, etc.) between themselves and the environment is called bioecology.

2. A discipline that studies the general laws of functioning of ecosystems at various levels.

3. A complex science that studies the habitat of living beings (including humans).

4. The science of ways to limit the consumption of biosphere resources to meet the needs of human economic activity.

Currently, the greening of various disciplines is being developed, which is understood as the process of introducing systems of technological, managerial and other solutions that allow the efficient use of natural resources. In this regard, ecology has broken up into a number of scientific branches and disciplines that are far from the original understanding of ecology as a biological science about the relationships of living organisms with their environment. But all modern trends in ecology are based on the fundamental ideas of bioecology.

Ecology by size of objects of study They are divided into geographical, the objects of study of which are large geosystems, geographical processes involving living things, and global ecology - the study of the Earth's biosphere.

Towards subjects of study ecology is divided into ecology of microorganisms, fungi, plants, animals, humans, agricultural, applied, engineering, etc.

By environment and component distinguish between the ecology of land, water bodies, marine, alpine, and chemical.

According to approaches to the subject of research - analytical and dynamic ecology.

In the human ecology system distinguish social ecology, which studies the relationships between social groups of society and people as a whole.

1.2 Ecological tasks Depending on the tasks being solved, ecology is divided into general ecology, which studies the basic principles of organization and functioning. various systems, and private, the scope of which is the study of specific groups.

General ecology classified by levels of organization. Population ecology studies populations - collections of individuals of the same species united by a common territory. Biocenology studies the structure and dynamics of natural communities - sets of cohabiting populations of different species.

Currently, many sections of ecology have a pronounced practical orientation and are of great importance for the development of various sectors of the economy. The main task of ecology in modern stage is the study by quantitative methods of the fundamentals of the structure and functioning of natural and man-made systems. The living nature around us is not a random combination of living beings. It is a stable and organized system that developed in the process of evolution of the organic world. Any phenomena associated with human influence on nature, the reverse influence of nature on man and his economy, with economic processes are called environmental problem.

Human relationships with species and communities can be achieved through human effort. This can achieve a solution to many economic problems:

Intensification of production in a number of industries;

Preservation and saving of expensive raw materials;

Increasing life expectancy and reducing morbidity among people;

Improving the mechanisms of interaction between society and nature.

The word “ecology” has been used so often lately that it is not always possible to say with certainty what was meant. It comes to the point that on dichlorvos and chairs made of genuine leather (the latter seems especially cynical) they write “ECOLOGICALLY FRIENDLY” (!). Ecology of the soul, ecological (“green”) PR... And the university teacher seriously proposed “Ecology of Nickel” as a topic for an essay.

"Ecology" has become a buzzword. On the one hand, one cannot deny the objectivity of such a “fashion”: the overdue environmental crisis makes everything related to ecology and the relationship between man and nature relevant. On the other hand, the word “overwritten”; one often hears that ecologists are not serious scientists. Many people do not understand the difference between ecology and nature conservation, believing that ecology is about fresh air And industrial emissions.

So what is ecology? Probably, to answer this question, we need to remember a little history of this very young science.

So, ecology originated as a branch of biology that studies the relationships of organisms with their environment. First environmental studies, perhaps, should be attributed to the works of the father of zoology, Aristotle. “Daddy” described more than 500 species of animals, including the nature of their habitats - and this is already the sphere of ecology.

The term “ecology” itself was proposed in 1866 by Haeckel (before that, other options were proposed - “epirriology”, “bionomy” - but they did not take root).

The term "ecology", as is known, comes from the Greek roots "oikos" - "abode" and "logos" - "science". That is, this is the science of the relationship between organisms and their environment (and not the science of home, as some “wits” write).

Modern definition ecology sounds like this:

Ecology is the science of the relationships of organisms with each other and with their inorganic environment; about connections in supraorganismal systems, about the structure and functioning of these systems.

(in the literature, undoubtedly, one can find many definitions, sometimes narrowing, sometimes expanding the scope of ecology as a science to the point of vagueness; this definition covers primarily the field of classical bioecology)

To put it simply, ecology studies the relationships of organisms with their environment, between which many different connections arise. Thanks to these connections, organisms do not exist in nature as chaotic clusters, but form certain communities - supraorganismal systems (populations, biocenoses, ecosystems - they will be discussed in subsequent lessons), which are also the subject of ecology. Since all living things are organized into ecosystems (the entire biosphere as a whole is also an ecosystem high level), then a person also finds himself included in numerous ecological relationships. Our agricultural fields are also unique ecosystems.

So, ecology studies the relationships:

between organisms (include food and non-food relationships);

between organisms and their habitat;

relationships within ecosystems.

Accordingly, the structure of classical bioecology includes autecology (ecology of individual organisms), deecology (ecology of populations and species), synecology (ecology of communities of organisms).

As is known, science is currently undergoing two mutually opposite processes. On the one hand, their differentiation occurs - sciences break up into many specialized areas, and on the other hand, integration occurs - many scientific studies are carried out at the junction of sciences, and new sciences arise at the junction of different directions. These processes have not spared the environment. So, let’s define the already mentioned sections of bioecology:

autecology - studies the relationship of an individual (representatives of a species) with its (their) environment; determines the limits of stability and preferences of the species in relation to various environmental factors;

demecology - studies the relationship of populations with their environment, studies demography and a number of other characteristics of populations in the light of their relationship with the environment;

synecology - studies biotic communities and their relationships with the environment: the formation of communities, their energy, structure, development, etc.

At the intersection of ecology and other scientific disciplines (medicine, pedagogy, law, chemistry, technology, agronomy, and so on), new scientific directions are born. In the broad sense of the word, ecology goes beyond the purely biological branch of knowledge.

In ecology, the ecology of various systematic groups is distinguished (ecology of fungi, ecology of plants, ecology of mammals, etc.), living environments (land, soil, sea, etc.), evolutionary ecology (relationship between the evolution of species and associated environmental conditions), a number of applied areas (medical, agricultural, environmental and economic sciences) and many other areas - there is no point in describing everything.

Of particular note is the following section: social ecology- that is, the ecology of the human community, which studies the relationship between society and Nature.

After we have defined ecology, it will probably be useful to separate ecology from some other sciences and concepts that are often confused, and all this creates unimaginable confusion.

A number of disciplines are sometimes incorrectly classified as ecology. Thus, environmental management and nature conservation are not sections of ecology. Another thing is that in Lately it became clear that it is impossible to organize environmental management and conservation without using environmental methods and without using ecological knowledge. Only knowledge of the relationship natural objects, about the sustainability of natural systems can determine possible mechanisms of interaction with them. This explains the fair, universal interest in ecology as the science of the relationships between living organisms and their environment.

Glossary

Here we will decipher (give scientific definitions) the terms used in the text of the lesson. Except where otherwise specified, all definitions are given according to the dictionaries of Nikolai Fedorovich Reimers.

SYSTEM STABILITY

the ability to remain relatively unchanged for a certain (sufficiently long) period of time, despite external and internal disturbances.

ECOLOGICAL STABILITY

This is the ability of a natural system (population, community or ecosystem) to maintain its structure and functions when exposed to external factors.

ECOSYSTEM SUSTAINABILITY

its ability to respond proportionally in magnitude to the magnitude of the impact.

ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

general deterioration of the natural environment of human life. Degradation of the natural system is its oppression, simplification of the structure.

SUPERORGANISM SYSTEM

a self-developing and self-regulating material and energy complex formed by natural structures. It exists as a relatively stable whole due to the interaction, distribution and redistribution of substances, energy, information and ensures the predominance of internal connections over external ones.

Bibliography

To prepare this work, materials from the site http://geographer.ru/ were used

Oversight. 3. Environmental law as a branch of legal knowledge. First of all, work in government agencies in the field environmental management. 3. Social order for an environmental engineer Social order is proposed to be understood as a system of requirements reflecting the characteristics of market economy, specific features professional activity environmental engineer and systems...

The individual is the largest unit, but for ecology it is the smallest unit of research. Ecology is a completely independent branch of biology, which has its own content, subject, objectives and research methods. Content, subject and tasks of ecology. The term “ecology” (from the Greek oikos – dwelling, habitat and logos – science) was proposed by E. Haeckel in 1866 to designate biological science, ...

to others. Much more alarming is the continuing misunderstanding of what ecology is, what its tasks, role and place in society are. “Ecology and Life” is not focused on screams, emotions, “green noise”, but on a balanced, analytical approach, a comprehensive consideration of problems. We do not arrogate to ourselves the right to possess the ultimate truth, but try to act as bequeathed by our chief...

To what extent living matter affects the physicochemical and geological processes, occurring on the surface of the Earth and in earth's crust. Only such an approach can give a clear and deep understanding of the concept of the biosphere. This is precisely the task that the outstanding Russian scientist Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1863-1945) set himself. 2. The concept of the biosphere V.I. Vernadsky Outstanding Russian...

the science that studies the relationships between living organisms and their environment. Its focus is on the system of relationships that support all life on earth, internal relationships nature.

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

ECOLOGY

(ecology) From Greek roots meaning "house" and "science". The German scientist Ernst Haeckel viewed ecology as “the science of the relationship between organisms and the environment.” This is a generally accepted definition still in use today. Haeckel first used the word Oekologie(ecology) in the book “General Morphologie” (“Generalle Morphologie”, 1866). In those days, the rapid process of industrialization, which changed the face of England and Germany, and the construction railways, accompanied economic development adjacent territories in North America, entailed such ecological disasters, like the disappearance of the passenger pigeon and the almost complete extermination of the American bison. The "ruler" of the thoughts of the intelligentsia was Charles Darwin's work "The Origin of Species", published in 1859, with its main idea - the evolutionary development of all living things, including humans. The word "ecology" has always been understood in three meanings. Firstly, as an intellectual activity - the study of interaction between subjects of living nature. Secondly, as the system itself, generated by causal connections between species. And finally, thirdly, the word “ecology” is used (and not necessarily by environmental professionals) to analyze moral criteria and political programs determined by awareness of reality environmental problems. Moral criteria, as a rule, come into conflict with practical activities human destruction of ecological systems, and require a search for ways to establish (or restore) harmony between man and nature. The reality of such goals (moreover, their logic), as well as their relationship with the ideas of ecology as a science, are the main subject of political ecology. Political ecology has a long history, although some researchers think it is too short. The political (as opposed to scientific) meaning of the term was determined only in the late 1960s - early 1970s, when Western countries sounded the alarm about the state of the environment. During this period, moral philosophers, notably the Norwegian Arne Naess, began to pay more attention to the practical implications of ecology's findings. Naess distinguishes between “deep” and “shallow” ecology. The first is not “anthropocentric” and recognizes the principles of “biosphere egalitarianism”, “diversity”, “symbiosis” and decentralization. The second implies a purely anthropocentric concern for the purity of the environment and conservation natural resources(be it the beauty of nature or oil) for future generations. According to Naess, a person is obliged to take a position of “deep ecology”, if only in order to achieve the modest goals of “shallow ecology”. As he himself says, character traits and the basic principles of "deep ecology" have not yet been fully clarified, but the research of Naess and other scientists touched on a topic that excited people's minds and stimulated the emergence of a "green" philosophy, which has since developed on various levels – social, polemical and scientific. This movement is heterogeneous, but its dissociation from both liberal capitalism and Marxism-Leninism, often collectively referred to as “industrialism”, is obvious. Of course, “green” philosophy has the right to claim a sharp difference from any initial assumptions of Western political thought before 1970, which, as a rule, were liberal and utilitarian in nature - in other words, they were economic. Both "ecology" and "economics" (derived from Greek roots) mean stewardship - of a home or natural environment - but these words now refer to diametrically opposed views of what that stewardship should be. Political ecology and green philosophy are relatively new terms, but they remind us of long-held views. Most primitive cultures are characterized by a special attitude towards the “green” world, something like a proto-ecological philosophy. People revered nature and sought to live in harmony with the environment. The exception, as many scholars note, was Jewish culture. Genesis 126 affirms the “dominant” position of man, created as something unique, separate from nature, and endowed with unlimited right to rule over all other creatures. Therefore, many “green” writers contrast the pagan respectful attitude towards nature with the “Judeo-Christian” rejection of the ideal of ecological balance in favor of an anthropocentric theology of man and God, separated from the rest of creation and dominating it, except for the statements of the opposite nature of St. Benedict and (especially) St. Francis. Any type of political ecology is based on a doctrine that can be generally called the “ecological fall of man,” i.e. on the idea that humanity is capable of living, and once lived, in harmony with nature, but at a certain stage this harmony was violated. One of the generally accepted versions of the Fall is the replacement of paganism with Christianity, first in Europe, and later in other regions where European colonialists reached. One of the traditionally Germanic creeds attributes the disharmony between man and nature to Jewish influence. This point of view, in particular, is expressed by Ludwig Feuerbach in “The Essence of Christianity”. Combined with racial theory, this approach contributed to the emergence of anti-Semitism by Richard Wagner, H. S. Chamberlain and the Nazis. The Nazi Reichsnaturschutzgesetz, a set of environmental laws (1935), was the prototype for environmental legislation. Rudolf Hess, deputy party leader, and Walter Darre, minister Agriculture, believed in “biodynamic” (or organic) farming, but this side of Nazi views began to lose its appeal already in 1939, as soon as the theory began to be put into practice. Some English writers, such as the novelist Henry Williamson, were attracted by the purely naturalist aspects of Nazi views. But more typical was the attitude of J. R. R. Tolkien, who saw Nazism as a “perverted” version of German natural laws. Another important line of thought is the recognition of the Anglo-Saxons' close connection with nature and their attitude towards Norman feudalism as an ecological fall from grace. John Massingham, K.S. Lewis and Sir Arthur Bryant are writers who felt an extraordinary kinship with the England of the Saxons: according to Massingham, the Saxons, close to nature, replaced the proto-capitalist exploiters of the Romans, and were later supplanted by the Normans, but they quietly recovered and gave medieval England their own values, trampled underfoot by the Tudor capitalist bureaucracy. Perhaps the most reactionary version of the ecological fall was propagated in the 1970s. Edward Goldsmith when he was editor of the magazine ("The Ecologist"). According to him, people passionately desire to live in harmony with nature, but they could realize this desire only when they were hunter-gatherers; any form of agricultural and industrial society violates the ecological balance. This brings us back to the main problem of environmental political theory. Scientific research do not allow either to build an environmentally stable model or to put forward a coherent theory of the harmonizing role of man in the ecological system. They rather lead to the construction of a Darwinian model (Darwinism) of an unstable evolving system in which man (and not only him) radically changes the living conditions of most other species, reducing the chances of survival of some and, perhaps, increasing the chances of most others. A person cannot live in harmony with nature if this implies his passive ecological role; he also cannot help but change the ecological system as the habitat of other species (all species play such a role without exception). On two-thirds of the land (and if you exclude polar and desert regions, almost all of the land), humans have radically changed ecological systems. He could not leave nature untouched, for example, in English rural areas. Now nature is in many ways our own creation, and cannot exist without our intervention. Any independent ethical doctrine will not be ecological in itself; ethical aspects of man's role in nature must come from outside. Haeckel, in particular, introduced the religious factor into his system; he argued: “Any science as such is a phenomenon of nature and mental activity. This is the unshakable principle of monism, which, as a religious principle, could be called pantheism. Man is not above nature, he inside her." However, this is a religion only in form, it has no content. The pantheistic God left no instructions about whether rivers should be dammed or forests planted. One of the modern environmental theorists with a developed imagination draws our attention to the ecological paradox. James Lovelock's essay "GAIA: A New Look at Life on Earth" states that earthly existence (not talking about the Earth and human life) is a self-sustaining system of systems, which a person is unable to bring either significant harm or significant benefit, although it can affect his own chances of survival. For Lovelock, pollution is “the most natural thing in the world,” and nuclear energy is inherently no different from any other energy source. In his opinion, it is in the interests of man to be guided by feelings of admiration and sacred awe of the natural world. This idea resonates with Naess's idea that ethical premises are simply "instilled, inspired and reinforced" by the nature of ecology. Individual or collective approaches cannot be ecologically right or wrong in themselves. However, there are very convincing arguments in favor of more general recommendation, which is as follows: when considering environmental problems, one should think not only about those that have been studied in detail environmental consequences our decisions, but also over the nature of ecology.