Types of errors in speech. Types of errors in Russian

What are speech errors? These are any cases of deviation from language norms, which are valid. A person without knowledge of these laws can work, live, and build communications with others normally. However, in certain cases, efficiency may suffer. There is a risk of being misunderstood or misunderstood. In these and other cases, you simply need to know what errors exist and how to deal with them.

Correcting speech errors in sentences is not always easy. In order to understand what exactly to pay attention to when composing this or that oral statement or written text, we created this classification. After reading this article, you will find out exactly what shortcomings will need to be corrected when you are faced with such a task.

When classifying speech errors, it would be logical to consider the fundamental criterion to be a unit of the linguistic tier - one whose norms of writing, education, and functioning were violated. The following levels are distinguished: words, phrases, sentences and text. Classification speech errors was created using this division. This will make it easier to remember their different types.

At the word level

The word is the most important unit of language. It reflects the changes taking place in society. Words not only name a phenomenon or object, but also perform an emotionally expressive function. Therefore, when choosing which of them are appropriate in a particular case, you should pay attention to the stylistic coloring, meaning, compatibility, and usage, since violation of at least one of these criteria can lead to the appearance of a speech error.

Here you can note spelling mistakes, that is, a violation of spelling patterns existing in the modern Russian language. Their list is known, so we will not dwell on this in detail.

Derivatives at the word level

At the word level, there are also word-formation speech errors, that is, violations of various norms of word formation of the Russian literary language. These include the following types:

• incorrect direct word formation. An example is the use of the word “hare” instead of the correct version “hares”, or a “thoughtful” (instead of “thoughtful”) look and others.
• speech error associated with incorrect reverse word formation. For example, “loga” (from the word “spoon”). Such use is usually typical for children of primary school or preschool age.
• Another type is substitutive word formation, which manifests itself in the replacement of one or another morpheme: “weigh” (from the word “hang”), “throw away”, used instead of “throw away”.
• word-composition, that is, the creation of a derivative unit that cannot be considered as occasional: reviewer, spender.

All these are types of speech errors that relate to word formation.

Word-level grammatical

There are also other types of incorrect uses of words. In the Russian language, in addition to word-formation ones, there are also grammatical and speech errors. You should be able to distinguish them. Grammatical errors are incorrect education various forms, violation of the properties of the formative system in different parts of speech. These include the following varieties:

• associated with a noun. This may be the formation of the accusative case form of some inanimate noun by analogy with the animate. For example, “She asked for a breeze” (the accusative form “breeze” should be used). Here we also include the opposite situation - the formation of the accusative case form for an animate noun in the same way as for an inanimate one. Example: “They harnessed two bears to a sleigh” (correct: “two bears”). In addition, when forming case forms, there may be a change in the gender of the noun: “February blue”, “pie with jam”. There are cases when indeclinable names are inclined: “to ride the meter”, “to play the piano”. Some of us sometimes form plural forms for nouns, while they only have singular forms, and vice versa: “a tray of teas.”
• speech errors associated with adjectives. This may be an incorrect choice of short or long forms: “The man was quite plump”, “The building was full of people". Here we also include the incorrect formation of degrees of comparison: “Lena was weaker than Lyuda,” “The new ones are becoming more and more militant.”
• Another speech error is an error associated with the verb (forms of its formation). Example: “A man is rushing around the room.”
• speech errors associated with participles and gerunds. Examples: “Looking around, the hunter walked,” “Riding on the bus.”
• confusions associated with the incorrect use of pronoun forms: “I didn’t want to tear myself away from (the book),” “Their contribution to the common cause,” and others.

Lexical at the word level

The next type of errors is lexical, that is, a violation of various lexical norms, lexical-semantic compatibility and word usage norms. They manifest themselves in the fact that compatibility is disrupted (less often in a sentence, most often at the level of a phrase).

This may be the use of a meaning that is unusual for the word. Such a speech error was made in the sentence “All the walls of the room were covered with panels” (the word “covered” cannot be used in this context). Another example: “Luxurious (that is, living in luxury) was the landowner Troekurov.”

It should be noted here that there is a violation of the lexical-semantic compatibility of a certain word: “The sky was bright” (“stand” in the meaning of “to take place” can only be used in relation to the weather), “The rays of the sun lay in the clearing” (correctly: “illuminated the clearing” ). This type of error primarily affects the verb.

In addition, we can highlight the attribution of some figurative meaning to a word that does not have one: “This man’s weary hands claim that he had to work a lot.”

The use of synonyms may also be incorrect. These are speech errors, examples of which look like this: “Mayakovsky uses satire in his work” (instead of “uses”), “With his legs spread wide, the boy looks at the football field on which the players are fighting” (correctly - “fighting”). Here we highlight the confusion of the meanings of paronyms: “His eyebrows rose surprisingly” (instead of “surprisedly”), “This work is a typical image of the fantastic genre (that’s right - “sample”). Let’s supplement the types of speech errors with polysemy, which cannot be removed in the sentence: “Only These lakes live several days a year."

At the level of phrases

When choosing a word, you should take into account not only its meaning in the literary language, but also lexical compatibility. Not all words can be combined. This is determined by their semantics, emotional coloring, stylistic affiliation, grammatical properties, etc. When it is difficult to determine whether certain words can be used together, you should turn to a compatibility dictionary. This will help to avoid errors at the level of phrases, sentences, and also text.

Errors at this level occur when there is a violation of various syntactic connections. For example, agreement: “I want to teach everyone volleyball - this is a good, but at the same time difficult sport” (a good, difficult sport). Controls: “I feel a thirst for glory”, “I am amazed at his strength”, “gain strength”. The connection between the predicate and the subject may be disrupted: “Neither heat nor summer is eternal (the singular form is used instead of the plural form “eternal”). All these are types of speech errors at the level of phrases.

Sentence level errors

At this level we can distinguish syntactic and communicative. Let's take a closer look at these speech errors in Russian.

Sentence-level syntax errors

This may be an unjustified parcellation, a violation of structural boundaries. As an example, we can cite the following sentences with speech errors: “Seryozha went hunting. With dogs,” “I see. My dogs are running around the field. Chasing a hare.” Syntactic errors also include violations in the construction of various homogeneous rows: the choice of different forms in a row of homogeneous members: “She was smoothly combed and rosy-cheeked.” Another variety is their different structural design, for example, as a subordinate clause and as a secondary clause: “I wanted to tell you about the incident with that person and why he did this (correctly “and about his action”). There may also be a mixture of indirect and direct speech: “She said that I would definitely fight (here the same subject is meant - “she”, correctly - “will”). Violation in the subordinate and main clauses of the aspectual-temporal correlation of predicates or homogeneous members: “She goes and said,” “When the girl was sleeping, she had a dream.” And another variation is a separation from the defining word of the subordinate clause: “One of the works is hanging in front of us, which is called “Spring.”

Communication errors at the sentence level

Next section - communication errors, that is, a violation of various norms that regulate the communicative organization of a certain utterance. They are as follows:

• actually communicative (violation of logical stress and word order, leading to false semantic connections): “The boys sat on the boat with the keel up.”
• logical-communicative (violation of such a side of the statement as the conceptual-logical). This may be a substitution of the subject performing the action (“Masha’s eyes and facial contours are captivated by the film”); substitution of the object of action (“I like Pushkin’s poems, especially the theme of love”); the combination of logically incompatible concepts in one row (“He is always serious, of average height, his hair is a little curly at the edges, not touchy”); violation of various clan-species relations (“The tone of angry meetings is not difficult to predict - angry speeches addressed to the regime, as well as calls to close ranks”); a mistake when using cause-and-effect relationships (“But he (that is, Bazarov) calmed down quickly, since he didn’t really believe in nihilism”).

• constructive and communicative, that is, violation of the laws of constructing statements. This may be a poor connection or lack of it between the parts of the statement: “They live in the village, when I visited him, I saw his blue eyes.” This also includes the use of an adverbial phrase without connection with the subject related to it: “Life should be shown as it is, without worsening or embellishing it.” Another type of similar error is the break in the participial phrase: “There is little difference between the questions written on the board.”
• information-communicative, or semantic-communicative. This type is similar to the previous one, but differs in that here the deterioration of communicative properties occurs not due to incorrect, unsuccessful structuring of the utterance, but due to the absence or excess of information in it. This may be the ambiguity of the primary intention of the statement: “We are inextricably linked with the country, with it we have the main blow - a blow to the world.” One can also include his incompleteness here: “I myself adore plants, so I am happy to see that our village becomes so unrecognizable in the summer.” This may be the omission of part of the statement and necessary words, semantic redundancy (word repetitions, tautology, pleonasms, duplication of information), etc.
• stylistic errors, that is, a violation of unity functional style, use (unjustified) of stylistically marked, emotionally charged means. For example, the use of various colloquial words in literary speech, book expressions in reduced and neutral contexts, expressively colored vocabulary that is unjustified (“A couple of robbers attacked the American embassy”), unsuccessful comparisons, metonymies, metaphors.

At the text level

All errors at this level are of a communicative nature. They can be of the following types:

• logical violations are very common errors at the text level. Here we include a violation of the logic of thought, the absence of connections between sentences, a violation of various cause-and-effect relationships, operations with an object or subject, a violation of genus-species relations.
• grammatical violations. This type of error is also common. Here there may be a violation in different sentences of the aspectual-temporal correlation of various verb forms, as well as a violation of agreement in the number and gender of the predicate and the subject in different sentences.
• information and communication disorders. These include constructive and information-semantic insufficiency, that is, the omission of part of a statement in the text; constructive and information-semantic redundancy (in other words, an excess of meaning and a clutter of structures); inconsistency with the constructive specifications of the semantics of statements; unsuccessful use of pronouns as a means of communication; pleonasms, tautology, repetitions.

Stylistic errors in the text

Stylistic violations existing at the text level can be viewed in a similar way. It should be noted that we also attribute to them the monotony and poverty of syntactic constructions, since texts such as: “The boy was dressed very simply. He was dressed in a jacket lined with cotton wool. His feet were wearing moth-eaten socks” - do not indicate syntactic violations, but about the inability to express thoughts in a variety of ways. At the text level, speech disorders are more complex than at the utterance level, although in the latter they are “isomorphic.” As a rule, text errors are syncretic in nature, that is, they incorrectly use the constructive, lexical, and logical aspects of a speech unit. This is natural, since the text is more difficult to construct. At the same time, we need to retain in our memory the previous statements, as well as the semantics of the entire text and the general idea, creating its continuation and completion.

The ability to find flaws in the text, as well as correcting speech errors, are important tasks that every school graduate faces. After all, in order to write a good Unified State Exam in the Russian language, you need to learn to identify all of the above types of errors and try to avoid them if possible.

Classification of errors.

Russian language.

Content

I. Typical mistakes. Classification
II. Speech errors

Misunderstanding the meaning of a word. Lexical compatibility

Use of synonyms, homonyms, ambiguous words

Verbosity. Lexical incompleteness of the utterance. New words

Outdated words. Words of foreign origin

Dialectisms. Colloquial and colloquial words. Jargonisms

Phraseologisms. Clichés and stamps

III. Factual errors
IV. Logical errors
V. Grammar errors
VI. Syntax errors

I. Typical mistakes. Classification

Communicative literacy is understood as the ability to create texts of different functional and semantic types of speech in the form of different functional styles.
Essays and presentations are the main forms of testing the ability to correctly and consistently express thoughts in accordance with the topic and intent, testing the level of speech preparation. They are used simultaneously to test spelling and punctuation skills and are assessed, firstly, in terms of content and structure (sequence of presentation) and, secondly, in terms of linguistic design.
Most of the errors that occur when students perform written work are also typical for other types of written work, be it writing a business paper (application, order, contract, etc.), preparing a report, article or text material for WEB pages. Therefore, the analysis of errors of this kind is of great importance for everyday activities.

Among typical mistakes The following groups can be distinguished:

Speech errors
Violation of the correct transmission of factual material
Logical errors
Grammatical errors
Syntax errors

II. Speech errors

The word is the most important unit of language, the most diverse and voluminous. It is the word that reflects all the changes taking place in the life of society. The word not only names an object or phenomenon, but also performs an emotionally expressive function.
And when choosing words, we must pay attention to their meaning, stylistic coloring, usage, and compatibility with other words. Since violation of at least one of these criteria can lead to a speech error.

The main causes of speech errors:
1. Misunderstanding the meaning of the word
2. Lexical compatibility
3. Use of synonyms
4. Use of homonyms
5. Using polysemantic words
6. Verbosity
7. Lexical incompleteness of the statement
8. New words
9. Outdated words
10. Words of foreign origin
11. Dialectisms
12. Colloquial and colloquial words
13. Professional jargon
14. Phraseologisms
15. Clichés and cliches

1. Misunderstanding of the meaning of the word.
1.1. Using a word in a meaning that is unusual for it.
Example:
The fire grew hotter and hotter. The error lies in the wrong choice of word:
Inflame - 1. Get very hot high temperature, get hot. 2. (trans.) To become very excited, to become overwhelmed by some strong feeling.
To flare up - to begin to burn strongly or well, evenly.

1.2. The use of significant and function words without taking into account their semantics.
Example:
Thanks to the fire that broke out from the fire, a large area of ​​the forest burned down.
In modern Russian, the preposition thanks retains a certain semantic connection with the verb to thank and is usually used only in cases where the reasons that cause a desired result are spoken of: thanks to someone’s help, support. The error arises due to the semantic distraction of the preposition from the original verb to thank. In this sentence, the preposition thanks should be replaced with one of the following: because of, as a result, as a result.

1.3. Selection of words-concepts with different bases of division (concrete and abstract vocabulary).
Example:
We offer complete treatment for alcoholics and other diseases.
If we are talking about diseases, then the word alcoholics should be replaced with alcoholism. An alcoholic is someone who suffers from alcoholism. Alcoholism is a painful addiction to drinking alcoholic beverages.

1.4. Incorrect use of paronyms.
Example:
A person leads a festive life. I'm in an idle mood today.
Idle and festive are very similar words, with the same root. But they have different meanings: festive - an adjective for holiday (celebratory dinner, festive mood); idle - not filled, not busy with business, work (idle life). To restore the meaning of the statements in the example, you need to swap the words.

2. Lexical compatibility.
When choosing a word, you should take into account not only the meaning that is inherent in it in the literary language, but also lexical compatibility. Not all words can be combined with each other. The boundaries of lexical compatibility are determined by the semantics of words, their stylistic affiliation, emotional coloring, grammatical properties, etc.
Example:
Good leader must set an example in everything to his subordinates. You can show an example, but not a sample. And you can be a role model, for example.
Example:
Their strong friendship, tempered by life's trials, was noticed by many. The word friendship is combined with the adjective strong - strong friendship.
What should be distinguished from a speech error is the deliberate combination of seemingly incompatible words: a living corpse, an ordinary miracle... In this case, we have one of the types of tropes - an oxymoron.
IN difficult cases When it is difficult to determine whether certain words can be used together, it is necessary to use a compatibility dictionary.

3. Use of synonyms.
Synonyms enrich the language and make our speech figurative. Synonyms may have different functional and stylistic connotations. Thus, the words error, miscalculation, oversight, error are stylistically neutral and commonly used; hole, overlay - colloquial; gaffe - colloquial; blunder - professional slang. Using one of the synonyms without taking into account its stylistic coloring can lead to a speech error.
Example:
Having made a mistake, the plant director immediately began to correct it.
When using synonyms, the ability of each of them to be more or less selectively combined with other words is often not taken into account.
Differing in shades of lexical meaning, synonyms can express different degrees of manifestation of a characteristic or action. But, even denoting the same thing, being interchangeable in some cases, in others synonyms cannot be replaced - this leads to a speech error.
Example:
Yesterday I was sad. The synonym sad is quite suitable here: Yesterday I was sad. But in two-part sentences these synonyms are interchangeable. I look sadly at our generation...

4. Use of homonyms.
Thanks to the context, homonyms are usually understood correctly. But still, in certain speech situations, homonyms cannot be understood unambiguously.
Example:
The crew is in excellent condition. Is the crew a cart or a team? The word crew itself is used correctly. But to reveal the meaning of this word, it is necessary to expand the context.
Very often, ambiguity is caused by the use in speech (especially oral) of homophones (sounding the same, but spelled differently) and homoforms (words that have the same sound and spelling in certain forms). So, when choosing words for a phrase, we must pay attention to the context, which in some speech situations is designed to reveal the meaning of the words.

5. Use of polysemantic words.
When including polysemantic words in our speech, we must be very careful, we must monitor whether it is clear exactly the meaning that we wanted to reveal in this speech situation. When using polysemous words (as well as when using homonyms), context is very important. It is thanks to the context that one or another meaning of a word is clear. And if the context meets its requirements (a semantically complete segment of speech that allows one to establish the meanings of the words or phrases included in it), then each word in the sentence is understandable. But it also happens differently.
Example:
He's already sung. It’s not clear: either he started singing and got carried away; or, after singing for a while, he began to sing freely, easily.

7. Lexical incompleteness of the statement.
This error is the opposite of verbosity. An incomplete statement consists of missing a necessary word in the sentence.
Example:
The advantage of Kuprin is that there is nothing superfluous. Kuprin may have nothing superfluous, but this sentence is missing (and not even just one) word. Or: “... do not allow statements on the pages of the press and television that could incite ethnic hatred.” So it turns out - “television page”.
When choosing a word, it is necessary to take into account not only its semantics, lexical, stylistic and logical compatibility, but also its scope. The use of words that have a limited sphere of distribution (lexical new formations, obsolete words, words of foreign language origin, professionalisms, jargon, dialectisms) should always be motivated by the conditions of the context.

8. New words.
Poorly formed neologisms are speech errors.
Example:
And last year on pothole repair After the spring thaw, 23 thousand rubles were spent. And only the context helps to understand: “pothole repair” is the repair of holes.

9. Outdated words.
Archaisms - words that name existing realities, but for some reason have been forced out of active use by synonymous lexical units - must correspond to the style of the text, otherwise they are completely inappropriate.
Example:
Today was the day at the university open doors. Here the obsolete word now (today, now, currently) is completely inappropriate.
Among the words that have fallen out of active use, historicisms also stand out. Historicisms are words that have fallen out of use due to the disappearance of the concepts they denote: armyak, camisole, bursa, oprichnik, etc. Errors in the use of historicisms are often associated with ignorance of their lexical meaning.
Example:
The peasants cannot stand their hard life and go to the main governor of the city. Governor is the head of a region (for example, a province in Tsarist Russia, states in the USA). Consequently, the chief governor is an absurdity; moreover, there could only be one governor in the province, and his assistant was called the vice-governor.

10. Words of foreign origin.
Now many people have an addiction to foreign words, sometimes without even knowing them exact value. Sometimes the context does not accept a foreign word.
Example: The work of the conference is limited due to the lack of leading specialists. Limit - set a limit on something, limit it. Foreign word limit in this sentence should be replaced with the words: going slower, stopped, etc.

11. Dialectisms.
Dialectisms are words or stable combinations that are not included in the lexical system of the literary language and belong to one or more dialects of the Russian national language. Dialectisms are justified in artistic or journalistic speech to create speech characteristics of heroes. The unmotivated use of dialectisms indicates insufficient knowledge of the norms of the literary language.
Example: A scavenger came to me and sat there the whole evening. Shaberka is a neighbor. The use of dialectism in this sentence is not justified either by the style of the text or by the purpose of the statement.

12. Colloquial and colloquial words.
Colloquial words are included in the lexical system of the literary language, but are used mainly in oral speech, mainly in the sphere of everyday communication. Colloquial speech is a word, grammatical form or turn of phrase, predominantly of oral speech, used in a literary language, usually for the purpose of a reduced, rough characterization of the subject of speech, as well as simple casual speech containing such words, forms and turns. Colloquial and vernacular vocabulary, in contrast to dialect (regional), is used in the speech of the entire people.
Example: I have a very thin jacket. Thin (colloquial) - holey, spoiled (thin boot). Errors occur in cases where the use of colloquial and colloquial words is not motivated by context.

13. Professional jargon.
Professionalisms act as colloquial equivalents of terms accepted in a certain professional group: typo - a mistake in the speech of journalists; the steering wheel is a steering wheel in the speech of drivers.
But the unmotivated transfer of professionalism into general literary speech is undesirable. Such professionalisms as sewing, tailoring, listening and others spoil literary speech.
In terms of limited use and the nature of expression (joking, reduced, etc.), professionalisms are similar to jargon and are integral part jargons - peculiar social dialects characteristic of professional or age groups people (jargon of athletes, sailors, hunters, students, schoolchildren). Jargon is everyday vocabulary and phraseology, endowed with reduced expression and characterized by socially limited use.
Example: I wanted to invite guests to a holiday, but the shack does not allow it. Khibara is a house.

14. Phraseologisms.
It must be remembered that phraseological units always have a figurative meaning. Decorating our speech, making it more lively, imaginative, bright, beautiful, phraseological units also give us a lot of trouble - if they are used incorrectly, speech errors appear.
1). Errors in learning the meaning of phraseological units.
a) There is a danger of taking idioms literally, which may be perceived as free associations of words.
b) Errors may be associated with a change in the meaning of a phraseological unit.
Example:
Khlestakov throws pearls before swine all the time, but everyone believes him. Here the phraseology "throw pearls before swine", meaning "to talk about something in vain or prove something to someone who is not able to understand it", is used incorrectly - in the meaning of "to invent, to weave fables."
2). Errors in mastering the form of phraseological units.
a) Grammatical modification of a phraseological unit.
Example:
I'm used to giving myself full reports. The form of the number has been changed here. There is a phraseological unit to give account.
Example:
He constantly sits with his hands folded. Phraseologisms like folded arms, headlong, headlong retain in their composition the old form of the perfective participle with the suffix -a (-я).
Some phraseological units use short forms adjectives, replacing them with full forms is erroneous.
b) Lexical modification of a phraseological unit.
Example:
It's time for you to take charge of your mind. Most phraseological units are impenetrable: an additional unit cannot be introduced into the phraseological unit.
Example:
Well, at least hit the wall! Omitting a phraseological unit component is also a speech error.
Example:
Everything returns to normal in a spiral!.. There is a phraseological unit back to normal. Substitution of a word is not allowed.
3). Changing the lexical compatibility of phraseological units.
Example:
These and other questions play a big role in the development of this still young science. There has been a mixture of two stable expressions: it plays a role and it matters. You could say this: questions matter... or questions matter a lot.

15. Clichés and cliches.
Stationery - words and expressions, the use of which is assigned to formal business style, but in other styles of speech they are inappropriate and are cliches.
Example:
There is a lack of spare parts.
Stamps are hackneyed expressions with a faded lexical meaning and erased expressiveness. Words, phrases and even whole sentences become cliches, which appear as new, stylistically expressive means of speech, but as a result of too frequent use they lose their original imagery.
Example:
A forest of hands went up during the vote.
A type of stamps are universal words. These are words that are used in the most general and vague meanings: question, task, raise, provide, etc. Usually, universal words are accompanied by standard prefixes: work - everyday, level - high, support - warm. There are numerous journalistic cliches (field workers, a city on the Volga), and literary cliches (an exciting image, an angry protest).
Clichés - speech stereotypes, ready-made phrases used as a standard that is easily reproduced in certain conditions and contexts - are constructive units of speech and, despite frequent use, retain their semantics. Clichés are used in official business documents (summit meeting); in scientific literature (requires proof); in journalism (our own correspondent reports from); V different situations colloquial speech (Hello! Goodbye! Who's the last one?).

III. Factual errors

Violation of the requirement for the correct transmission of factual material causes factual errors.
Factual errors are a distortion of the situation depicted in the statement or its individual details, for example: “In the winter forest the cuckoo crowed loudly.” or “The merchants Bobchinsky and Dobchinsky enter.”
Factual errors can be detected if the reader of the work knows the factual side of the matter and can evaluate each fact from the standpoint of its reliability. The reason for factual errors is insufficient knowledge of the events described, poverty of life experience, and incorrect assessment of the actions and characters of the heroes.
In the presentation, factual errors include various types of inaccuracies:
1) errors in indicating the place and time of the event;
2) in conveying the sequence of actions, cause-and-effect relationships, etc., for example: instead of “Kirovsky Prospekt” - in the work “Kyiv Prospekt” or “Kirovsky Village”.

In an essay, factual errors are
1) distortion of life's truth;
2) inaccurate reproduction of book sources;
3) proper names;
4) dates;
5) places of events,
for example: “Chadsky”, “at Nagulny and Razmetnoye”.
Examples of typical factual errors.
“With the image of Onegin, Pushkin opened a gallery of “superfluous people” in Russian literature: Oblomov, Pechorin, Bazarov. Extra person must have two qualities: reject the ideals of society and not see the meaning of their existence." In the above example, Oblomov and Bazarov clearly fall out of the proposed chain.
"The literature of classicism (Lomonosov, Derzhavin, Fonvizin, Karamzin, etc.) had a great influence on the work of A. S. Griboyedov." There are two mistakes here at once. First: Fonvizin really “had a great influence” on Woe from Wit, but it is hardly possible to talk about the influence of Lomonosov and Derzhavin. The author confuses facts and types of fiction. The second factual inaccuracy is that Karamzin is a representative of the culture of sentimentalism.

IV. Logical errors

Violation of the sequence (logic) of presentation leads to the appearance of logical errors.
Logical errors consist of breaking rules logical thinking. This type of error includes the following shortcomings in the content of the work:
1) violation of the sequence of statements;
2) lack of connection between parts and sentences;
3) unjustified repetition of a previously expressed thought;
4) fragmentation of one micro-theme by another micro-theme;
5) disproportionality of parts of the statement;
6) lack of necessary parts;
7) rearrangement of parts of the text (if it is not due to the assignment for presentation);
8) unjustified substitution of the person from whom the story is told (for example, first from the first, then from the third person).

V. Grammar errors

Grammatical errors are non-compliance with the norms of word and form formation, the norms of syntactic connections between words in a phrase and a sentence.

There are two types of grammatical errors:
1. Word formation.
The structure of the word is broken: “ruthlessness”, “immortality”, “instead”, “publicism”.
2. Morphological.
Errors associated with non-normative formation of word forms.
This type of error includes:
a) errors in the formation of forms of nouns: “obleki”, “English”, “two banners”, “on the bridge”, “Grinev lived as an undergrowth”, “He was not afraid of dangers and risks”, “They built a big swing in the yard”.
b) errors in the formation of adjective forms: “One brother was richer than the other,” “This book is more interesting.”
c) errors in the formation of pronouns: “I went to him,” “their house.”
d) errors in the formation of the verb: “He never made a mistake,” “Mom always rejoices at guests,” “Having walked out into the middle of the room, he spoke,” “A smiling child was sitting in the far corner.”
e) incorrect construction of an aspectual pair, most often a paired verb imperfect form: “My brother and I cut off all the extra branches, put the tree in the middle of the room and decorate it.”

VI. Syntax errors

Syntactic errors consist of incorrect construction of phrases, violation of the structure of simple, complicated and complex sentences.

Errors in the structure of phrases:
1. Violation of agreement with the main word in gender, number and case of the dependent word, expressed by an adjective, participle, ordinal number, pronoun: “This summer I was in the steppe Trans-Volga region.”
2. Impaired control.
Errors in unprepositioned management (wrong choice of preposition): “If you touch a birch tree on a hot day, you will feel the cool trunk.”
3. Wrong choice of case with a correctly chosen preposition: “He looked like a deathly tired man.”
4. Omission of a preposition: “After a hasty lunch, I sat at the helm and drove (?) to the field.”
5. Using the unnecessary pretext “Thirst for fame.”
6. Omission of the dependent component of the phrase: “Getting into the hot cabin again, turning the steering wheel shiny from the palms again, (?) driving.”

Errors in the structure and meaning of the sentence:
1. Violation of the connection between the subject and the predicate: “But neither youth nor summer last forever,” “The sun had already set when we returned.”
2. Lack of semantic completeness of the sentence, violation of its boundaries: “Once during the war. A shell hit a poplar.”
3. Syntactic ambiguity: “Their (the girls’) dream came true, they (the fishermen) returned.”
4. Violation of the type-temporal correlation of verbs in the sentence: “Grinev sees Pugachev getting into the carriage.”

Errors in a simple two-part sentence:
Subject:
- Pronominal duplication of the subject: “Children sitting on an old boat with its keel overturned, they are waiting for their father.”
- Violation of agreement between the subject and the pronoun replacing the subject in another sentence: “Apparently, there is a storm at sea, so it is full of dangers.”
Predicate:
- Errors in the construction of the predicate: “Everyone was happy.”
- Violation of the agreement of the predicate in gender and number with the subject, expressed by a collective noun, quantitative-nominal phrase, interrogative and indefinite pronoun: “My mother and I stayed at home,” “A sheaf of rays of the sun entered the room.”
- Pronominal duplication of the addition: “Many books can be read several times.”
Definition:
- Incorrect use of an inconsistent definition: “On the right hang a lamp and my portrait from the kindergarten.”
- A conglomeration of agreed and not agreed upon definitions relating to one member of the sentence: “The huge, wonderful world of life in our country and our peers opens up in millions of books.”
- Incorrect choice of morphological form of the circumstance: “I teach my lessons on the table” (at the table).

Errors in one-part sentences:
1. The use of two-part structures in place of one-part ones.
2. Using an adverbial phrase in an impersonal sentence: “When I saw the dog, I felt sorry for it.”

Sentences with homogeneous members:
1. Using different parts of speech as homogeneous members of a sentence: “I like the room because it is bright, large, and clean.”
2. Inclusion in a series of homogeneous terms of words denoting heterogeneous concepts: “When it’s spring and a clear day, the sun illuminates my whole room.”
3. Incorrect use of coordinating conjunctions to connect homogeneous members: “The boy was big-faced, but serious.”
4. Incorrect attachment of logically heterogeneous secondary members to one main member: “There are books in the closet, newspapers and glassware on the shelves.”
5. Errors in coordinating homogeneous subjects with the predicate: “Anxiety and melancholy froze in her eyes.”
6. Violations in the area of ​​homogeneous predicates:
a) the use of different types of predicates as homogeneous: “The sea after the storm is calm, gentle and plays with the rays of the sun”;
b) violation of the uniform design of compound nominal predicates: the use of different case forms of the nominal part of homogeneous compound nominal predicates: “Their father was an experienced fisherman and a brave sailor”; joining homogeneous verbal predicate an addition that is controlled by only one of the predicates: “Everyone is really waiting and worried about the soldiers”; the use of short and long forms of adjectives and participles in the nominal part: “My room has recently been renovated: whitewashed and painted.”
7. Combining members and parts of different sentences as homogeneous ones: “Mushrooms grow under the birch tree, berries grow, snowdrops bloom in the spring.” “The children were waiting for their father and when his boat would appear.”

Sentences with introductory words and introductory constructions:
1. Wrong choice introductory word: “The girls peered intensely into the distance of the sea: a boat would probably appear on the horizon.”
2. Using an introductory word that leads to ambiguity: “According to the fishermen, there was a storm at night, but now it’s calm.”
3. Using the introductory sentence as an independent one: “A book is a source of knowledge. As many say.”

Offers with separate members:
1. Violation of word order in sentences with participial phrases.
- Separation of the participial phrase from the word being defined: “But again a misfortune happened to the tree: its low branches were cut off.”
- Inclusion of the defined word in the participial phrase: “Girls have their eyes fixed on the sea.”
2. Violation of the rules for constructing participial phrases.
- Construction of a participial phrase following the example of a subordinate clause: “The picture shows a girl who has just gotten up.”
- Using a participial phrase instead of an adverbial phrase: “And every time we returned back, we sat down under a poplar tree and rested.”
3. Errors in sentences with isolated circumstances expressed by the adverbial phrase: “Resting in a chair, the picture “March” hangs in front of me.

Methods of transmitting direct speech. Direct and indirect speech:
1. Combining direct speech and the author’s words: “Before the war, my father told me: “Take care of the tree and went to the front.”
2. The use of direct speech without the author’s words: “The girls saw the longboat: “Dad!”
3. Mixing direct indirect speech: “Grandfather said that in childhood they had such a law: on birthdays we gave only what was made with our own hands.”
4. Errors when introducing quotes: “K. Paustovsky said that “A person who loves and knows how to read is a happy person.”

Complex sentences:
1. Violation of the logical-grammatical connection between the parts of a complex sentence: “My father did not forget this story for a long time, but he died.”
2. Use of a pronoun in the second part of a complex sentence, leading to ambiguity: “May hopes come true and they will return.”
3. Errors in using complex conjunctions:
a) connective - to connect parts of a complex sentence in the absence of adversative relations between them: “Yesterday there was a storm, and today everything was calm.”
b) adversatives - to connect parts of a complex sentence in the absence of adversative relations between them: “There is a birch tree growing in our yard, but buds are also swelling on it”;
c) double and repeated: “Either a bird has landed on the water, or the wreckage of a broken boat is floating on the sea”;
d) unjustified repetition of conjunctions: “And suddenly the girls saw a small black dot, and they had hope”;
e) unsuccessful choice of alliances: “Mitrasha was ten years old, but her sister was older.”

Complex sentences:
1. Inconsistency between the type of subordinate clause and the meaning of the main one: “But they will still wait for their father, since the fishermen must be waited on the shore.”
2. Using composition and subordination to connect parts in a complex sentence: “If a person does not play sports, he ages quickly.”
3. Making structures heavier by “stringing” subordinate clauses: “The sail appeared in the sea as happy news that the fishermen were all right and that the girls would soon be able to hug their parents, who were delayed at sea because there was a strong storm.”
4. Omission of a necessary demonstrative word: “Mom always scolds me for throwing my things around.”
5. Unjustified use of a demonstrative word: “I have an assumption that the fishermen were delayed by the storm.”
6. Incorrect use of conjunctions and allied words when choosing them correctly:
a) the use of conjunctions and allied words in the middle of a subordinate clause: “There is a TV on the nightstand in the room, on which I watch entertainment programs after school”;
b) violation of the agreement of the conjunctive word in the subordinate clause with the replaced or attributive word in the main sentence: “On two shelves there are fiction, which I use in preparation for lessons.”
7. Use of the same type of subordinate clauses with sequential subordination: “Walking along the shore, I saw two girls sitting on an overturned boat, which was lying upside down on the shore.”
8. Using a subordinate clause as an independent clause: “The girls are worried about their relatives. That’s why they look so sadly into the distance.”

Non-union complex sentence:
1. Violation of the unity of construction of homogeneous parts in a non-union complex sentence: “The picture shows: early morning, the sun is just rising.”
2. Decomposition of parts of a non-union complex sentence into independent sentences: “The girls are dressed simply. They are wearing summer cotton dresses. The eldest has a scarf on her head.”
3. Simultaneous use of non-union and union connections: “The girls’ clothes are simple: the older ones with a scarf on their heads, in a blue skirt and gray blouse, the younger ones without a scarf, in a purple dress and a dark blue blouse.”

Complex sentence with different types of connections:
1. Violation of the order of parts of the sentence: “The waves are still foaming, but they calm down near the shore; the closer to the horizon, the darker the sea; and therefore the girls have hope that their father will return.”
2. Using pronouns that create ambiguity: "We see that the girl's bed is not made, and she confirms that the girl just got up."

Error classification

Grammatical errors (G)– these are errors in the structure of a linguistic unit: words, phrases or sentences, i.e. violation of any grammatical norm - word formation, morphological, syntactic.

No.

Type of error Examples

Incorrect word formation. Erroneous formation of forms of a noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb (personal forms of verbs, active and passive participles, gerunds).

Noble ness, miracle technology, according to d cherk, above laugh; more interesting, more beautiful; With five hundred rubles; juggled both hands, theirs pathos, around his there is nothing; How many moral principles we are deprived due to loss of spirituality; them moves feeling of compassion; streams of water, flowable down, struck the author of the text; higher onto the stage, the singers bowed.

Violation of approval norms

I know a group of guys who are seriously into... imisya jazz.

Violation of management norms

We need to make nature more beautiful. Everyone was surprised at him by force.

Disruption of the connection between the subject and the predicate or the way of expressing the predicate

The main thing I want to pay attention to now is artistic side of the work. He wrote a book that epic. Everyone was glad, happy and funny.

Errors in constructing sentences with homogeneous members

A country loved And was proud poet.

In the essay I wanted to say about the meaning of sports and why I love it.

Errors in constructing sentences with participles

Reading the text, such a feeling of empathy arises.

Errors in constructing sentences with participial phrases

The narrow path was covered failing snow under your feet.

Errors in the construction of complex sentences

This book taught me to appreciate and respect friends, which I read as a child.

It seemed to the man That that this is a dream.

Violation of sentence boundaries

He was not accepted into the basketball team. Because he was short.

Violation of the types of tense correlation of verb forms

Freezes for a moment the heart and suddenly will knock again.

Omitting a sentence member (ellipsis)

At the meeting there was accepted (?) hold a cleanup day.

Errors associated with the use of particles: separation of a particle from the component of the sentence to which it belongs

It would be nice if the picture showed would artist's signature. In the text Total two problems are revealed.

Speech errors (P)– these are errors not in the construction of a sentence, not in the structure of a linguistic unit, but in its use, most often in the use of a word, i.e. a violation of lexical norms. This is pleonasm, tautology, speech cliches, inappropriate use of colloquial vocabulary, dialectisms, jargon; expressive means, non-discrimination of paronyms. Errors in the use of homonyms, antonyms, synonyms, polysemy not eliminated by the context.

No.

Type of error Examples

Using a word in a meaning that is unusual for it

We were shocked wonderful acting. Thanks to fire, the forest burned down.

Unjustified use of dialect and colloquial words

Such people always succeed burn others. Oblomov did nothing all day long played the fool.

Poor use of pronouns

The text was written by V. Belov. He refers to artistic style; I immediately had a picture of his imagination.

The use of words of a different stylistic coloring; mixing vocabulary from different eras; inappropriate use of clerical language, expressive, emotionally charged words, outdated vocabulary, jargon, inappropriate use of phraseological units

By idea author, the hero wins; Molchalin works secretary of Famusov; In the novel by A.S. Pushkin take place lyrical digressions; Author every now and then resorts to the use of metaphors and personifications. If I were there, then for such an attitude towards my mother I would cupcake V gnawing would give; Zoshchenko don't put your finger in your mouth, but let me just make the reader laugh.

Failure to distinguish shades of meaning introduced into a word by prefix and suffix

In such cases I I glance to the dictionary.

Failure to distinguish between paronyms and synonymous words; errors in the use of antonyms when constructing an antithesis; destruction of the figurative meaning of a phraseological unit in an unsuccessfully organized context

Were accepted spectacular measures; The name of this poet familiar in many countries; The third part of the text is not funny, but also not a major motive makes us think; the record hasn't said its thing yet last word.

Violation of lexical compatibility

Use of unnecessary words, including pleonasm

Young young man; Very beautiful.

Using nearby or closely related words (tautology)

In that the story is told about real events.

Unjustified repetition of a word

Hero story does not think about his actions. Hero He doesn’t even understand the depth of what he has done.

Poverty and monotony of syntactic structures

When the writer came to the editorial office, he was accepted by the editor-in-chief. When they talked, the writer went to the hotel.

Use of unnecessary words, lexical redundancy

Then so that you can smile, about it Our bookstore will take care of it.

Logical errors (L). Logical errors are associated with a violation of the logical correctness of speech. They arise as a result of a violation of the laws of logic, committed both within one sentence, judgment, and at the level of the entire text.

No.

Type of error Examples

Comparison (contrast) of two logically heterogeneous (different in scope and content) concepts in a sentence or text

Attended the lesson director, librarian, and Anna Petrovna Ivanova And Zoya Ivanovna Petrova; He leaned his back to the battery; Behind good studies and raising children parents students received letters of gratitude from the school administration.

Violation of cause-and-effect relationships

In recent years so many done to modernize education, but teachers work in the old way, because Issues of modernization of education are being resolved weak.

A missing link in an explanation, a “logical leap.”

It is hardly possible to block the flow of people through our yard. [?] How I want the yard to be an adornment for both the school and the village.

Rearranging parts of the text (if it is not due to the assignment for the essay or presentation)

It's time to return this word to its true meaning! Honor... But how to do this?

Unjustified substitution of the person from whom the story is told (for example, first from the first, then from the third person)

Comparison of logically incomparable concepts

Syntax encyclopedic articles are excellent from other scientific articles.

Composition and text errors

Bad start

The text begins with a sentence containing an indication of the previous context, which is absent in the text itself, by the presence of demonstrative word forms in the first sentence, for example: In this text the author ...

Errorsin the main part

a) Bringing together relatively distant thoughts in one sentence.

b) Lack of consistency in presentation; incoherence and violation of sentence order.

c) The use of sentences of different types in structure, leading to difficulty understanding the meaning.

Bad ending

Duplication of conclusion, unjustified repetition of previously expressed thoughts.

Factual errors (F) - a type of non-linguistic error, which consists in the fact that the writer cites facts that contradict reality, gives incorrect information about factual circumstances, both related and not related to the analyzed text (background knowledge)

No.

Type of error Examples

Bazarov was a nihilist and therefore killed an old woman with an ax; Lensky returned to his estate from England; Happiness for Oblomov was loneliness and indifference.

Inaccuracy in the quote. No indication of the author of the quotation. Incorrectly named author of the quote.

The book means a lot to me, because Lenin said: “ Live and learn!»

Ignorance of historical and other facts, including time displacement.

Great Patriotic War of 1812; The capital of the USA is New York.

Inaccuracies in the names, surnames, and nicknames of literary characters.

Distortions in names literary works, their genres, an error in the indication of the author.

Turgen b ev; "Taras And Bulba"; V Turgenev's stories"Crime and Punishment".

Classification of errors corrected and taken into account when assessing a student’s work

Grammatical errors(G) – these are errors in the structure of a linguistic unit: words, phrases or sentences, i.e. violation of any grammatical norm - word formation, morphological, syntactic.

Speech errors (P)– these are errors not in the construction of a sentence, not in the structure of a linguistic unit, but in its use, most often in the use of a word, i.e. a violation of lexical norms. This is pleonasm, tautology, speech cliches, inappropriate use of colloquial vocabulary, dialectisms, jargon; expressive means, non-discrimination of paronyms. Errors in the use of homonyms, antonyms, synonyms, polysemy not eliminated by the context.

Logical errors (L).Logical errors are associated with a violation of the logical correctness of speech. They arise as a result of a violation of the laws of logic, committed both within one sentence, judgment, and at the level of the entire text.

Factual errors(F) - a type of non-linguistic error, which consists in the fact that the writer cites facts that contradict reality, gives incorrect information about factual circumstances, both related and not related to the analyzed text (background knowledge)

"Crime and Punishment". Ethical mistakes (E)- violation of the system of values ​​and ethical rules:

outdated truths.

ERRORS: SPELLING, PUNCTUATION, GRAPHICS, TYPOGRAPHICAL ERRORS

• errors are taken into account
• to the rules learned; not rough:

• (two non-rough ones count as one)
• in exceptions to the rules;
• in writing capital letters in compound proper names;
• in cases of separate and continuous writing, not with adjectives and participles acting as a predicate; in writing and and s
• after prefixes; V difficult casesWhere did he turn! Wherever he turned, no one could give him an answer. No one else...; none other than…; nothing else is...; nothing more than... and etc.);
• in cases where one punctuation mark is replaced by another;
• in the omission of one of the combined punctuation marks or in violation of their sequence;

• repetitive (counts as one error, repetitionin the same word or in the root of words with the same root);
• same type ( the first three errors of the same type are considered one error,

each nextsuch an error is counted asindependent):

errors per one rule, if the conditions for choosing the correct spelling are contained in the grammatical (in the army, in the grove; prick, fight) and phonetic (pie, cricket) features of a given word.

Not considered the sameerrors on a rule in which, in order to find out the correct spelling of one word, you need to select another (reference) word or its form (water - water, mouth - mouth, sad - sad, sharp - sharp).

The concept of errors of the same type does not apply to punctuation errors.

Errors (two or more) in one unchecked word are counted as one error.

When checking literacy (K7-K8) errors are not taken into account

• spelling:

• in word transfer;
• letters e/e after consonants in foreign words ( racket, plein air ) and after vowels in proper names ( Marietta);
• uppercase/lowercase letters

• in names related to religion: M(m)aslenitsa, R(r)Christmas, B(b)og.
• when using proper names figuratively (Oblomovs and Oblomovs).
• in proper names of non-Russian origin; writing surnames with first parts don, van, sept... ( Don Pedro and Don Quixote).

• continuous / hyphenated / separate spelling

• after prefixes; compound nouns without a connecting vowel (mostly borrowing), not regulated by rules and not included in the minimum dictionary (Lend-Lease, Lula-kebab, know-how, papier-mâché, tumbleweed, Walk-City paperweight, but beef Stroganoff, head waiter, sedan chair, price list);
• to rules that are not included in school curriculum(for example, the rule for the continuous / separate writing of adverbial units / adverbs with a prefix / preposition, for example:in spill, scold behind your back, to match, on the run, in installments, on the back foot, as a curiosity, by touch, on the hook, put on the butt(cf. current spellingrecklessly, scatteredly);

• punctuation errors:

• dash in an incomplete sentence;
• isolation of inconsistent definitions related to common nouns;
• commas for restrictive-exclusive phrases;
• distinguishing homonymous particles and interjections and, accordingly, not highlighting them or separating them with commas;
• in the transmission of the author's punctuation;

• graphic errors(means of writing a language, fixing the relationship between letters in writing and the sounds of oral speech); various techniques for abbreviating words, using spaces between words, various underlinings and font selections;
• clerical errors and misprints:

Distortion of the sound appearance of a word ( rattles instead of works, memlya instead of earth); .

Missing letters (the entire novel is worth on this conflict;

Permutations of letters (new names products);

Replacing some alphabetic characters with others (legendary Battle of the Ice);

Adding extra letters ( in any, even the most difficult conditions).

If a person strives to fully master all the capabilities of a language, to belong to an elite type of speech culture, then he must master all styles of speech, and not only avoid spelling, punctuation, spelling, etc., but also stylistic errors.

Stylistic errors are, on the one hand, the use of linguistic means inappropriate in a given style, and on the other hand, a violation of the requirements of clarity, accuracy, brevity, richness and expressiveness.

Among the mistakes associated with poor mastery of Russian language resources, the most common are the following:

Among the errors associated with an insufficiently developed linguistic stylistic sense, the most common are the following:

Various types of stylistic errors can be played out in speech, in particular, in literary texts. Thus, in “The Tale of the Troika” by A. and B. Strugatsky, the passion of officials for drawing up unnecessary memos and instructions is ridiculed. There was a notice on the elevator door stating that “sleeping and jumping is not allowed.” In this case, not only the absurdity of the content of the instructions is played out, but also the clerical technique of splitting the predicate:

sleep - practice sleeping, bounce - practice jumping.

Stylistic errors are quite common in both formal and informal speech. Many of them become so typical that we hardly notice them. That is why it is necessary to carefully monitor your speech from this point of view.