The article briefly talks about the domestic and foreign policies of Catherine II. The reign of the “enlightened” empress was quite long and was reflected in the strengthening of the role of the nobility and the success of Russia in the international arena.

1. Introduction

Domestic policy of Catherine II

• In the first years of her reign, Catherine II strove to realize her ideal - enlightened absolutism. She really believed in the creation of a reasonable political system, based on the principles of humanistic philosophy. For this purpose, the “Order” was developed - a program in which the most negative sides serfdom. In 1767, Catherine II convened a special election commission to discuss her “Order” and develop a new Council Code. The commission included representatives from all Russian classes. The work of the commission immediately revealed the narrow-class orientation of its representatives. The nobles defended their interests, which were in conflict with the growing merchant class. However, the main attacks and demands came from the peasantry. Encouraged by the opportunity to express their discontent, the peasants declared the intolerability of their situation and all the oppression they suffered from the nobles. A necessary condition they wanted to give peasants the right to private property. The “enlightened” empress did not expect this and, under the pretext of the outbreak of war, stopped the work of the commission.
• The war with Turkey distracted Catherine II from the planned transformations, and the peasant uprising led by Pugachev frightened her and forced her to abandon all idealistic ideas about government structure. Catherine II begins to pursue a policy of centralizing power and strengthening the position of the nobility.
• Immediately after the suppression of the Pugachev uprising, the Zaporozhye Sich and Cossack self-government were liquidated. Russia was divided into provinces headed by governors. Governors-general were appointed to govern several provinces. Small unit territorial division became a county. The nobles received the right local government. They elected district and provincial leaders of the nobility.
• The most important document of Catherine II is the Charter of the Nobility (1785). Noble privileges acquired the force of law. The nobles became a closed class with the exclusive right of land ownership.
• At the same time, the Charter of Cities was adopted, according to which all citizens were divided into six categories that made up the city curiae. Once every three years, the townspeople elected members of the city duma and the mayor from among the six curiae. Wealthy merchants and nobles had an advantage. The Duma was executive body and dealt with minor issues of local government. Her power was completely limited by the governor.

Foreign policy of Catherine II

• The actions of Catherine II were aimed at resolving the Turkish and Polish issues. As a result of the war with Turkey 1768-1774. Russia received significant territories in the south and the Kerch fortress. The strengthening of Russia in the Turkish question caused the unification of Austria and Prussia in the Polish question, which demanded the division of Poland, which was torn apart by internal contradictions at that time. Under the influence of Austria and Prussia, Russia confirmed the conditions for the division of Poland. Part of the territory went to Russia, part to Austria.
• The strengthening of Russia's military power allowed it to unilaterally annex Crimea, which led to another war with Turkey (1787-1791). A series of outstanding victories of the Russian army consolidated the results of the war of 1768-1774, Crimea was recognized as Russian territory.
• Contradictions between Austria, Prussia and Russia regarding Poland grew. After peace was concluded with Turkey, Russia was able to transfer troops and take Warsaw. In 1793, the second partition of Poland took place, according to which Belarus and Right Bank Ukraine were transferred to Russia. Poland was limited to a small territory, as a result of which an uprising was raised under the leadership of T. Kosciuszko. Russian troops suppressed the uprising and in 1795 the third partition of Poland took place, destroying it as an independent state. Russia regained its original ancient Slavic lands.
• Thus, the internal policy of Catherine II was expressed in the final establishment of the nobility as the ruling class, and the external policy - in the expansion of territory and a significant increase in influence in the world.

Catherine II – All-Russian Empress, who ruled the state from 1762 to 1796. The era of her reign is a strengthening of serfdom tendencies, a comprehensive expansion of the privileges of the nobility, active transformative activities and active foreign policy aimed at implementing and completing certain plans.

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Foreign policy goals of Catherine II

The Empress pursued two main foreign policy goals:

• strengthening the influence of the state in the international arena;
• expansion of territory.

These goals were quite achievable in the geopolitical conditions of the second half of the 19th century century. Russia's main rivals at this time were: Great Britain, France, Prussia in the West and Ottoman Empire in the East. The Empress adhered to a policy of “armed neutrality and alliances,” concluding profitable alliances and terminating them when necessary. The Empress never followed in the footsteps of anyone else's foreign policy, always trying to follow an independent course.

The main directions of Catherine II's foreign policy

Objectives of Catherine II's foreign policy (briefly)

The main foreign policy objectives are those requiring a solution were:

• conclusion of a final peace with Prussia (after Seven Years' War)
• maintaining the positions of the Russian Empire in the Baltic;
• solution of the Polish question (preservation or division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth);
• expansion of the territories of the Russian Empire in the South (annexation of Crimea, territories of the Black Sea region and the North Caucasus);
• exit and complete consolidation of the Russian navy in the Black Sea;
• creation of the Northern System, an alliance against Austria and France.

The main directions of Catherine II's foreign policy

Thus, the main directions of foreign policy were:

• western direction (Western Europe);
• eastern direction (Ottoman Empire, Georgia, Persia)

Some historians also highlight

• the northwestern direction of foreign policy, that is, relations with Sweden and the situation in the Baltic;
• Balkan direction, bearing in mind the famous Greek project.

Implementation of foreign policy goals and objectives

The implementation of foreign policy goals and objectives can be presented in the form of the following tables.

Table. "Western direction of Catherine II's foreign policy"

Attention! Historians suggest that the formation of the Anti-French coalition was undertaken by the empress, as they say, “to divert attention.” She did not want Austria and Prussia to pay close attention to the Polish question.

Second anti-French coalition

Table. "Northwestern direction of foreign policy"

Table. "Balkan direction of foreign policy"

The Balkans have become the object of close attention of Russian rulers, starting with Catherine II. Catherine, like her allies in Austria, sought to limit the influence of the Ottoman Empire in Europe. To do this, it was necessary to deprive her of strategic territories in the region of Wallachia, Moldova and Bessarabia.

Attention! The Empress had been planning the Greek Project even before the birth of her second grandson, Constantine (hence the choice of name).

He was not implemented because of:

• changes in Austria's plans;
• independent conquest by the Russian Empire of most of the Turkish possessions in the Balkans.

Greek project of Catherine II

Table. “Eastern direction of Catherine II’s foreign policy”

The eastern direction of Catherine II's foreign policy was a priority. She understood the need to consolidate Russia in the Black Sea, and also understood that it was necessary to weaken the position of the Ottoman Empire in this region.

Attention! The successes of the state in the East were associated, first of all, with the activities of outstanding commanders and naval commanders, “Catherine’s eagles”: Rumyantsev, Orlov, Ushakov, Potemkin and Suvorov. These generals and admirals raised the prestige of the Russian army and Russian weapons to unattainable heights.

It should be noted that a number of Catherine’s contemporaries, including the famous commander Frederick of Prussia, believed that the successes of her generals in the East were simply a consequence of the weakening of the Ottoman Empire, the disintegration of its army and navy. But, even if this is so, no power except Russia could boast of such achievements.

Russo-Persian War

Results of the foreign policy of Catherine II in the second half of the 18th century

All foreign policy goals and objectives Ekaterina executed with brilliance:

• The Russian Empire gained a foothold in the Black and Azov Seas;
• confirmed and secured the northwestern border, strengthened the Baltic;
• expanded territorial possessions in the West after three partitions of Poland, returning all the lands of Black Rus';
• expanded its possessions in the south, annexing the Crimean Peninsula;
• weakened the Ottoman Empire;
• gained a foothold in the North Caucasus, expanding its influence in this region (traditionally British);
• Having created the Northern System, it strengthened its position in the international diplomatic field.

Attention! While Ekaterina Alekseevna was on the throne, the gradual colonization of the northern territories began: the Aleutian Islands and Alaska (the geopolitical map of that period of time changed very quickly).

Results of foreign policy

Evaluation of the Empress's reign

Contemporaries and historians assessed the results of Catherine II's foreign policy differently. Thus, the division of Poland was perceived by some historians as a “barbaric action” that went against the principles of humanism and enlightenment that the empress preached. Historian V. O. Klyuchevsky said that Catherine created the preconditions for the strengthening of Prussia and Austria. Subsequently, the country had to fight with these large countries that directly bordered the Russian Empire.

Successors of the Empress, and, criticized the policy his mother and grandmother. The only constant direction over the next few decades remained anti-French. Although the same Paul, having conducted several successful military campaigns in Europe against Napoleon, sought an alliance with France against England.

Foreign policy of Catherine II

Foreign policy of Catherine II

Conclusion

The foreign policy of Catherine II corresponded to the spirit of the Epoch. Almost all of her contemporaries, including Maria Theresa, Frederick of Prussia, Louis XVI, tried to strengthen the influence of their states and expand their territories through diplomatic intrigues and conspiracies.

Catherine the Second began to reign after her unpopular husband Peter the Third. Empress expanded the privileges of the nobility and tightened the situation of the peasants. During the reign of Catherine 2, the borders of the Russian Empire expanded and reforms of the public administration system were introduced.

Showing interest in literature, painting, and communicating with famous European educators had a positive impact on the development of the state. Russia was finally included in the great European states. The empress's policy was aimed at educating and increasing the literacy level of the empire's population.

Biography: briefly

Catherine the Great's birthplace is Germany. The father of the future queen is the governor of the city of Stettin, who has roots in the Zerbst-Dornburg line of the House of Anhalst. At birth, the girl received the name Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst. Her mother was Peter's aunt 3, whose lineage began back in royal dynasties Denmark, Sweden and Norway. Ekaterina is German by nationality.

Frederica's character was boyish. The girl grew up playful and playful, but enjoyed learning several things at home. foreign languages, theology, geography and history, music and dance. Parents did not like courage and games with boys, but showing concern for their younger sister Augusta calmed them down. Mother called the future ruler Fike - "little Frederica".

On the initiative of the mother of Peter the Third, the Zerbst princess and her mother were invited to Russia to conclude an engagement between the future rulers. At the age of fifteen, Frederica found herself on the territory of the empire and began to study Russian traditions and language, theology, history, and religion. Studying at night open window, she caught pneumonia and turned to a Russian doctor for help, which increased her popularity among the people.

The girl's mother arrived in the Russian Empire as a spy. The King of Prussia entrusted her with a difficult mission - she needed to remove Bestuzhev, who pursued an anti-Prussian policy, from affairs, and replace him with a more suitable nobleman. Sofia Frederica, having learned about this, put her mother into disgrace and completely changed her attitude towards her.

Marriage to Peter III

The marriage between the heir to the Russian throne and Sophia was concluded in one thousand seven hundred and forty-five. The first years of the family's existence were gloomy - the young husband was not at all interested in his sixteen year old wife. At this time, the future heiress, who received the name Catherine at baptism, continued her self-education. She rode horses, went hunting, held masquerades and balls.

Nine years later, the couple's first child was born. Pavel was taken from his mother by his domineering grandmother and allowed them to see each other only after a month and a half. After his birth, the husband began to treat his wife even worse and openly started relationships with his mistresses. The birth of his daughter Anna displeased Peter. The husband's ascension to the throne and the death of his mother-in-law brought even more discord into the family.

Palace coup

At the beginning of his reign, Peter the Third concluded an agreement with Prussia that was unfavorable for the state, returning the conquered lands to it. He was going to go on a campaign against friendly Denmark. This caused discontent among the officers. Young Catherine stood out with a sharp mind, curiosity, erudition compared to her ignorant husband.

She turned to England and France for financial assistance to carry out a coup. England provided assistance, which influenced the further attitude of the ruler towards this state. The guard, inclined to Catherine's side, arrested Peter. He abdicated the throne and died under unknown circumstances.

Years of reign of Catherine the Great

In one thousand seven hundred and sixty-two, Catherine ascended the throne and was crowned in Moscow. She inherited an exhausted state: monopoly trade led many industries into decline, the army did not receive salaries for several months, justice was bought, the naval department was neglected.

As a result, Ekaterina Alekseevna, Empress Russian state, during her reign formulated the following tasks:

• education of the people;
• institution of precision policing;
• creation of an abundant state;
• instilling respect from neighboring countries for the Russian Empire.

Empress Catherine the Great preserved and developed the trends that her predecessors had laid down. She changed the territorial structure of the state, carried out judicial reform, annexed significant territories to the empire, expanding its borders and increasing the population. Katya the Great built one hundred and forty-four new cities and formed twenty-nine provinces.

Among the most significant achievements of the ruler The following are distinguished:

• conducting active domestic policy;
• transformation of the Senate and Imperial Council;
• adoption of provincial reform;
• transformation of systems of education, medicine, culture.

In Catherine's time, the ideas of the Enlightenment were embodied, the autocracy was strengthened, and the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened. But the queen worsened the situation of the peasants, emphasized the inequality of different classes of the population, giving the nobility even more privileges.

In one thousand seven hundred and sixty-three the Senate was transformed. It was divided into six departments, giving each of them special powers. The Senate became a body controlling the activities state apparatus and the highest court.

Catherine divided the empire into provinces, after which a two-tier system became valid - the district and the governorship. There were not enough county centers - cities - so Catherine the Second transformed large rural settlements into them. At the head of the viceroyalty was the governor-general, who had powers in the judiciary. , administrative and financial sector . The latter was dealt with by the Treasury Chamber; disputes between residents of the provinces were resolved with the help of the Conscientious Court.

Negative consequences of government

During the reign of Catherine, decisions were made and actions were taken that led to negative consequences. Among them are:

• liquidation of the Zaporozhye Sich;
• extensiveness of economic development;
• corruption and favoritism flourish.

The introduction of provincial reform led to a change in the regimental structure. This provoked the abolition of the special rights of the Zaporozhye Cossacks. Because they supported Pugachev uprising and robbed Serbian settlers, the ruler ordered the disbandment of the Zaporozhye Sich. The Cossacks were disbanded, and the Zaporozhye fortress was destroyed. Instead of the Sich, Catherine created the Army of the Faithful Cossacks, giving them Kuban for eternal use.

Concerning economic system, then when the empress came to power, she preserved the state of industry and agriculture, formed new credit institutions and expanded the list banking operations. Only semi-finished products and raw materials were exported, since the ruler did not perceive the importance industrial revolution and denied the benefits of machines in production. Agriculture developed only due to the increase in arable land, most of grain was exported, which caused widespread starvation among the peasants.

She introduced paper money into circulation - banknotes, which accounted for only a few percent of copper and silver coins. But at the same time, corruption flourished: the favorites of Catherine the Great ruined merchants and resold wines taken from the provinces. The Empress was gentle not only with her favorites, but also with other officials who exceeded their authority. Katya bought the love of her subjects, foreign aristocrats, causing great financial losses to the state.

Domestic policy

The conduct of national policy consisted of transforming science, medicine, and religion. During the reign of Catherine 2, city schools were created and colleges were opened. The Academy of Sciences was actively developing: a botanical garden, a library, an archive, a printing house, an observatory, a physics room and an anatomical theater appeared. The Empress invited foreign scientists for cooperation, created homes for street children, and organized the Treasury to help widows. Personnel in the field of medicine published a number of fundamental works, opened hospitals where they received patients with syphilis, shelters and psychiatric hospitals.

Catherine declared religious tolerance, according to which the Orthodox clergy was deprived of the right to interfere in the work of other faiths. The clergy depended on the secular nobility, and Old Believers were persecuted. Migrant Germans and Jews, as well as the population eastern origin- Muslims - could practice their religion.

Foreign policy

Catherine's reign culminated in the expansion of the empire's territory and was aimed at strengthening the state's position in the world political map. The First Turkish War helped Russia acquire Kuban, Balta and Crimea. This strengthened the empire in the Black Sea.

During accession of the empress The division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth took place. Austria and Prussia demanded that the Russian Empire take part in the division of Poland, fearing the increased influence of Russian troops in this state. After the First Partition, the eastern part of Belarus and the Latvian lands joined the empire. The second partition brought Russia part of Ukraine and the central territories of Belarus. During the Third Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the state received Lithuania, Volyn and western Belarus. As a result of the Russian-Turkish wars, Crimea became part of the empire.

Catherine the Second made Russia a popular state thanks to the signing of peace treaties with Georgia, Sweden, and Denmark.

Following the reign of the Empress, Russia acquired the status of a great state and significantly expanded its borders. But many scientists consider the queen’s foreign policy to be negative. The years of her reign were called the Golden Age of the nobility and at the same time the century of Pugachevism. She actively communicated with her people through historical fables and tales, notes, comedies, essays and opera librettos. Catherine patronized painting, music, and architecture, but only foreign artists received full recognition and generous gifts.

Personal life of the Empress

The Empress was known for her love affairs. Her most famous lovers in history are called Potemkin, Orlova, Saltykova, but how many favorites did the ruler have? Scientists count at least twenty-three lovers. Contemporaries believe that the rise of debauchery was the merit of Catherine II. This is not surprising: in brief description portrait of the queen highlighted long dark hair , straight nose, sensual lips and deep gaze. In her youth, her beauty amazed many nobles, and the queen’s majestic behavior only elevated her in their eyes.

Catherine the Second did not build palaces for her own needs, but arranged a network of small palaces for recreation during her journey. She did not bother with the arrangement of residences, content with a simple interior.

Opinion of historians and people, from what Catherine 2 died differs, the first indicate that the real cause of death was a stroke, and there were rumors among the people about her death due to copulation with a stallion. She was buried in Tsarskoe Selo.

Ekaterina 2, short biography which is filled with contradictions, was considered a truly great woman and an intelligent ruler. Despite the way she came to power, she earned the acceptance and recognition of the people.

Chronology

• 1764 Decree on the secularization of church lands.
• 1765 Decree allowing landowners to exile serfs to hard labor.
• 1768 - 1774 I Russian-Turkish War.
• 1772, 1793, 1795 Three partitions of Poland between Russia, Austria and Prussia.
• 1773 - 1775 Uprising led by Emelyan Pugachev.
• 1774 Signing of the Kuchuk-Kaynajir peace treaty between Russia and Turkey.
• 1775 Provincial reform.
• 1785 Charters granted to the nobility and cities.
• 1787 - 1791 II Russian-Turkish War.
• 1796 - 1801 Reign of Paul I.

"Enlightened absolutism" of Catherine II

“Have the courage to use your mind,” - this is how the German philosopher Immanuel Kant defined the mentality of the era, which was called the Age of Enlightenment. In the second half of the 18th century. in connection with the general economic recovery in ruling circles European countries There is a growing awareness of the need to modernize the economic and political system. This pan-European phenomenon is traditionally called Enlightened absolutism. Without essentially changing state forms absolute monarchy, within the framework of these forms, monarchs carried out reforms in various sectors.

The ideas of the French enlighteners Rousseau, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Diderot highlighted society, a specific person, his personal prosperity, which was a reflection of the emerging ideology of a new class - the bourgeoisie. Rousseau proposed creating a democratic state in which everyone could take part in governance. Voltaire actively preached humanity and justice, insisted on the abolition of medieval forms of legal proceedings. Diderot called for the abolition of class privileges and the liberation of the peasants.

Catherine II became acquainted with the works of French educators while she was still a princess. Having ascended the throne, she made an attempt to implement these ideas on Russian soil. Keyword it became “law” for her.

In 1767, Catherine convened a special commission in Moscow to draw up a new set of laws of the Russian Empire to replace the outdated one Cathedral Code 1649. 572 deputies representing the nobility, clergy, government agencies, peasants and Cossacks. Serf peasants, who made up half of the country's population, did not participate in the work of the commission.

Catherine prepared a special “Instruction” for the Commission to draft a new Code - a theoretical justification for the policy of enlightened absolutism. “The Mandate” consisted of 20 chapters and 655 articles, of which Catherine borrowed 294 from Montesquieu. “I only own the arrangement of the material, and here and there a line or another,” she wrote to Frederick II. The main provision of this document was the justification of the autocratic form of government and serfdom, and the features of enlightenment were visible in the creation of courts, separated from administrative institutions, and the recognition of the rights of people to do what the laws allow. Articles that protected society from despotism and the arbitrariness of the monarch deserve a positive assessment. Institutions were given the right to draw the attention of the sovereign to the fact that “such and such a decree is contrary to the Code, that it is harmful, obscure, and that it cannot be carried out according to it.” Articles that defined economic policy government, which included concern for the construction of new cities, the development of trade, industry and agriculture. The commission, after working for just over a year, was dissolved under the pretext of starting a war with Turkey, but mainly because Catherine, having learned the positions of various groups of the population, considered the task completed, although not a single law was adopted.

The nobility remained the main social support of the autocracy in Russia. It opposed the huge mass of the peasantry and the weak third estate. The autocracy was strong and relied on the army and the bureaucratic apparatus to carry out its policies.

It is important to emphasize that, in contrast to the overt pro-noble and pro-serfdom policy of the autocracy of the previous period, the policy of “enlightened absolutism” was carried out in new forms.

In February 1764, the secularization of church land ownership was carried out, as a result, more than a million souls of peasants were taken away from the church, and a special board was created to manage them - the College of Economics. Much former church land was transferred to the nobles in the form of grants.

A series of decrees of the 60s crowned the feudal legislation, which turned the serfs into people completely defenseless from the arbitrariness of the landowners, obliged to meekly obey their will. In 1765, a decree was issued in favor of the serf owners, providing for the assignment to the nobles of all lands seized by them from various categories peasants According to the Decree of January 17, 1765, the landowner could send the peasant not only to exile, but also to hard labor. In August 1767, Catherine II issued the most feudal decree in the entire history of serfdom. This decree declared any complaint from a peasant against a landowner to be a grave state crime. Legally, the landowners were deprived of only one right - to deprive their serfs of life.

In Catherine’s “enlightened age,” trade among peasants reached enormous proportions. The decrees adopted during these years testified to the deep development of serfdom. But serfdom It also developed in breadth, including new categories of the population within its sphere of influence. The decree of May 3, 1783 prohibited the peasants of Left Bank Ukraine from changing from one owner to another. This decree of the tsarist government legally formalized serfdom in the Left Bank and Slobodskaya Ukraine.

A manifestation of “enlightened absolutism” was the empress’s attempt to form public opinion through journalism. In 1769, she began to publish the satirical magazine “All sorts of things,” where human vices and superstitions were criticized, and opened a printing house at Moscow University, headed by N.I. Novikov is a Russian educator, publicist and writer. Pushkin called him “one of those who spread the first rays of enlightenment.” He made the works of W. Shakespeare, J.B. available to a wide range of readers. Moliere, M. Cervantes, works of French enlighteners, Russian historians. Novikov published many magazines, where, for the first time in Russia, criticism of serfdom was voiced. Thus, it was in the age of Catherine that, on the one hand, the serfdom reached its apogee, and on the other hand, a protest against it arose not only from the oppressed class ( peasant war under the leadership of E. Pugachev), but also from the emerging Russian intelligentsia.

Foreign policy of Catherine II

Illustration 29. Russian Empire in the second half of the 18th century. (European part)

• Firstly, territorial - this is the task of promoting the southern border of the state (Black Sea, Crimea, Sea of ​​Azov, Caucasus Range).
• Secondly, the national one is the reunification of the Belarusian and Ukrainian lands that were part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with Russia.

After the Seven Years' War, France became one of Russia's main opponents in the international arena, which sought to create the so-called “Eastern Barrier”, consisting of Sweden, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth is becoming an arena for clashes between these states.

In the context of an aggravated situation, Russia managed to conclude an alliance with Prussia. Catherine II preferred to have a complete Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, while Frederick II strives for its territorial division.

The Ottoman Empire, which closely followed the events in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, demanded the withdrawal of Russian troops from there. In 1768 she declared war on Russia. During the first years of the war, Turkish troops were forced to abandon Khotyn, Iasi, Bucharest, Izmail and other fortresses in the Danube theater of operations.

The first occurred on June 25-26, 1770, when the Russian squadron, having circumnavigated Europe, arrived in the Mediterranean Sea and won a brilliant victory near Chesma. A month later, the talented commander P.A. Rumyantsev inflicted a serious defeat on the Turks at the Battle of Kagul. The hostilities did not stop there.

France continued to push the Ottoman Empire into war with Russia. On the other hand, Austria supported Turkey, pursuing its own goals in this war - to conquer part of the Danube principalities that were in the hands of Russian troops. Under the current conditions, the Russian government was forced to agree to the division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Convention of 1772 formalized the first section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: Austria captured Galicia, Pomerania, as well as part of Greater Poland, went to Prussia. Russia received part of Eastern Belarus.

Now Türkiye in 1772 agreed to conduct peace negotiations. The main point of disagreement in these negotiations was the question of the fate of Crimea - the Ottoman Empire refused to grant it independence, while Russia insisted on it. Hostilities resumed. Russian troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov in June 1774 managed to defeat the Turkish troops at Kozludzha, this forced the enemy to resume negotiations.

On July 10, 1774, negotiations in the Bulgarian village of Kuchuk-Kainardzhi ended with the signing of a peace treaty. Through this world, Kerch, Yenikale, and also Kabarda passed to Russia. At the same time, she received the right to build a navy in the Black Sea, her merchant ships could freely pass through the straits. This is how I ended Russian-Turkish war(1768 - 1774).

However, the Turks already in 1775 violated the terms of the treaty and arbitrarily proclaimed their protege Devlet-Girey Khan of the Crimea. In response, the Russian government sent troops into Crimea and confirmed its candidate, Shagin-Girey, on the khan’s throne. The rivalry between the two powers in the struggle for Crimea ended with the promulgation in April 1783 of Catherine II’s decree on the inclusion of Crimea into Russia.

Among other Russian foreign policy steps of that period, the Georgievsky Tract should be highlighted. In 1783, an agreement was concluded with Eastern Georgia, which went down in history under the name “Treaty of St. George”, which strengthened the position of the peoples of Transcaucasia in the fight against the Iranian and Ottoman yoke.

The Ottoman Empire, although it recognized the annexation of Crimea to Russia, was intensively preparing for war with it. She was supported by England, Prussia, and France. At the end of July 1787, the Sultan's court demanded the right to Georgia and Crimea, and then began military operations with an attack on the Kinburn fortress, but this attempt was repulsed by Suvorov.

In the defeat of the Ottoman army and navy, great credit goes to the outstanding Russian commander Suvorov, who was at the head of the army, and the extraordinary talent of naval commander F.F. Ushakova.

1790 was marked by two outstanding victories. At the end of August, a naval victory was won over Turkish fleet. To others important event During this period there was an assault and capture of the Izmail fortress. This powerful fortress with a garrison of 35 thousand people and 265 guns was considered inaccessible. On December 2, A.V. appeared near Izmail. Suvorov, at dawn on December 11, the assault began, and the fortress was taken by Russian troops.

These victories of the Russian troops forced Turkey to end the war, and at the end of December 1791 to conclude a peace treaty, which confirmed the annexation of Crimea to Russia and the establishment of a protectorate over Georgia. Thus ended the Second Russian-Turkish War (1787 - 1791).

Poland continues to occupy a large place in Russian foreign policy these years. In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth itself, some magnates and gentry turned to Russia for help. At their call, Russian and Prussian troops were brought into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and conditions were created for its new division.

In January 1793, a Russian-Prussian treaty was concluded, according to which Polish lands (Gdansk, Torun, Poznan) went to Prussia, and Russia was reunited with Right Bank Ukraine and central part Belarus, from which the Minsk province was later formed - the second partition of Poland took place.

The second partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth caused the rise of a national liberation movement led by General Tadeusz Kosciuszko. In the fall of 1794, Russian troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov entered Warsaw. The uprising was suppressed, and Kosciuszko himself was captured.

In 1795, the third partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth took place, putting an end to its existence. The agreement was signed in October 1795, Austria sent its troops to Sandomierz, Lublin and Chelmin, and Prussia to Krakow. They went to Russia West Side Belarus, Western Volhynia, Lithuania and the Duchy of Courland. The last king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth abdicated the throne and lived in Russia until his death in 1798.

The reunification of Belarus and Western Ukraine, ethnically close to the Russian peoples, with Russia contributed to the mutual enrichment of their cultures.

Paul I

The reign of Paul I (1796 - 1801) is called “unenlightened absolutism” by some historians, “military-police dictatorship” by others, and the reign of a “romantic emperor” by others. Having become emperor, the son of Catherine II tried to strengthen the regime by strengthening discipline and power in order to exclude all manifestations of liberalism and freethinking in Russia. Characteristics he was harsh, hot-tempered, unbalanced. He tightened the order of service for the nobles, limited the validity of the Letter of Grant to the nobility, and introduced Prussian order in the army, which inevitably caused discontent among the upper class Russian society. On March 12, 1801, with the participation of the heir to the throne, the future Emperor Alexander I, the last palace coup in history was carried out. Pavel was killed in the Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg.

Domestic policy of Catherine II

Catherine the Second ruled Russia from 1762 to 1796. The power of the monarch came to her as a result palace coup, the result of which was the overthrow of her husband Peter the Third. During her reign, Catherine became famous as a powerful and active woman who was able to finally strengthen her cultural status Russian Empire on the European stage.

In her domestic policy, the Empress adhered to a dual system. Praising the ideas of enlightenment and humanism, she enslaved the peasant people as much as possible, and also comprehensively expanded the already considerable privileges of the nobility. Historians consider the most important reforms of Catherine the Second’s domestic policy to be:

1. Provincial reform, according to which the administrative division of the empire was completely reorganized. After all, now, instead of a three-stage division (province-province-district), a two-stage division (province-district) was introduced.

2. A commission was formed, which pursued the goal of clarifying the people's needs for the subsequent implementation of other reforms.

3. Senate reform, which significantly reduced the powers of the Senate to the executive and judicial authorities. All legislative power was now transferred to the cabinet of state secretaries and the empress personally.

4. Abolition of the Zaporozhye Sich in 1775.

5. Economic reforms of Catherine II became the reason for the establishment fixed prices for the products necessary for every person, as well as the rise of the country’s economy, the development of its trade relations and the elimination of monopolies.

6. Favorites and corruption were the consequences and causes of some domestic policy reforms. Due to the expanded privileges of the ruling elite, the level of abuse of rights has increased. At the same time, the favorites of Catherine II accepted rich gifts from the treasury of the Russian Empire.

7. Religious reform, according to the decree of which, the Russian Orthodox Church was prohibited from interfering in any affairs of other faiths.

8. Class transformations, primarily beneficial only to representatives of the nobility.

9. National policy, as a result of which the so-called Pale of Settlement was established for the Jews, the German population of Russia was exempted from duties and taxes, and the indigenous population became the most disenfranchised layer in the country.

10. Scientific and educational reforms. It was during the reign of Empress Catherine the Second that public schools (small and main) began to open, which became the foundation for the formation of secondary schools. At the same time, the level of education compared to other countries was extremely low.