Lesson plan for a geography lesson (grade 10) on the topic: Lesson summary: Geopolitics and political geography. Lesson summary on the topic "Political Geography and Geopolitics"

Geopolitics: concept, subject, subjects, categories .

Approaches to defining geopolitics are extremely diverse: from identifying it with the art of managing a global process, state or other community, through the assertion that geopolitics is an integral independent science, to recognizing it as a worldview concept of the future. The process of forming a holistic understanding of geopolitics as a science and developing a unified conceptual and terminological apparatus complicates, but at the same time contributes to its methodological enrichment and expansion of its scope practical application the fact that among geopoliticians there are many representatives of geographical, political, historical and other sciences.

Based on the position of the author of the term “geopolitics” G. Kjellen, we will present arguments in favor of its scientific nature. The term "geopolitics" etymologically consists of two Greek words: geo - earth, politicos - state, citizen and everything connected with the city. Therefore, according to G. Challen (1924), geopolitics is the doctrine of the state as a geographical organism or phenomenon in space: it is thus the doctrine of the state as a country, territory or region."

It is worth noting that, unlike political geography, there is no clear and comprehensive definition of geopolitics. Geopolitics is often understood as a science that studies global politics, that is, the strategic direction of political relations, mainly modern ones. The concept is used to assess the international political positions of a state, its place in the system of international studies, and the conditions for its participation in military-political alliances. To begin with, here are some common definitions of geopolitics:

"Geopolitics serves to determine national policy, taking into account the factors influencing it from the natural environment" (Encyclopedia " Britanica", 1994).

"This is a science that studies and analyzes in unity geographical, historical, political and other interrelated factors influencing the strategic potential of the state" (" The Encyclopedia Americana", 1973).

“Geopolitics is a combination of geographical and political factors that determine the position of a state or region with an emphasis on the influence of geography on politics” (S. Brzezinski, 1997).

“The science of studying the relationship between power politics internationally and the geographical framework within which it is carried out” (P. Gallois, 1990).

“Geopolitics is the science of control over space” (V. Madisson, V. Shakhov, 2003).

So, firstly, the core of geopolitics remains geography as a dynamic system of social and natural sciences, which gives grounds for most researchers to define it as a geographical discipline. Opponents of this approach, mainly political scientists, mistakenly identify geography with the study of stable physical-geographical conditions and resources. Secondly, geopolitics links political processes and earthly spaces into one whole. Previously, it was believed that this science, as opposed to political geography, explores only global space, but more and more works are appearing devoted to political strategy at the meso- and micro-level (regional geopolitics, atomistic geopolitics, etc.).

Geopolitics is the science of the multifaceted policies of states and other entities, aimed at studying the possibilities of active use of geospace data in the interests of military-political, cultural-informational, economic and environmental security within the relevant fields of interaction.

For the sake of fairness, we note that opponents of recognizing geopolitics as a science rightly accuse it of subjectivity of judgment, philosophizing, and daydreaming. Applied geopolitics, which is based on the interests of a specific subject and is a “theory of positional struggle in the world,” really suffers from this. chessboard". But academic geopolitics is devoid of national bias and authorial subjectivism. According to M. Mironenko, it "should highlight what is reasonable from the past and present geopolitical argumentation in the form general patterns and trends in geopolitical relations" (V. Kolosov, M. Mironenko, 2002). Already now, individual geopolitical categories and cause-and-effect relationships should be recognized as purely scientific.

There is no doubt that geopolitics has its own object and subject of research.

The main object of geopolitics research is the geopolitical structure of the world in all its diversity. Now it is represented by many spatial models (see topic 11). The stable geopolitical structure of the world, which reflects the balance of power at a certain historical stage, is called the world system.

The subjects of geopolitical planning are generators of stabilization or change in the geopolitical structure of the world. The irrefutable and main subjects of geopolitics are states (empires). Associated with them are such key concepts of geopolitics as geostrategic players and geopolitical axes.

Geostrategic players, for Iz. Brzezinski, “are states that have the ability and national freedom to use force or influence beyond their borders in order to change the existing geopolitical state of affairs,” and geopolitical axes are “states whose weight does not come from their strength and motivation, but rather from the disadvantages of location and from the consequences of their potentially vulnerable conditions for the behavior of geostrategic players."

States as subjects international law may initiate the creation of regional or international organizations, which are also subject to geopolitical subjectivity.

Spread of liberal traditions in XVIII - XX centuries and deepening globalization at the end XX V. significantly undermined the political and economic sovereignty of the state. And if earlier we were talking about geopolitics, cycles of hegemony of states (P. Taylor, Kondratiev-Wallerstein), about the confrontation of owners, nations, ideologies, civilizations (S. Huntington), which again took place at the state level, then at the turn XX - XXI centuries Along with states, transnational companies (TNCs) have become new and completely independent subjects of the geopolitical structure of the world, and their confrontation and economic expansion are already determining the balance of forces at the regional and global levels. The geopolitical structure of the world is increasingly responding to the interests of non-state actors: TNCs, various associations of citizens (political movements and organizations, anti-globalization movements, etc.), terrorist groups and individual leaders. All participants in the international political process, regardless of the extension of international law to them in the system of international relations, are called actors.

With the development of regional geopolitics, its subjects become the political and territorial components of individual states.

Thanks to the interests inherent in every subject of geopolitics ( national idea, economic and military-political security of the state, imperial claims, economic dominance, preservation of identity, personal ambitions, etc.) certain spaces are formed in which these interests overlap, oppose or interact. If we make an attempt to take something common out of the brackets of geopolitical models, then a certain problematic area emerges, the main content of which is the fixation and forecast of the spatial boundaries of the action of “force fields of various natures, which act as the subject of geopolitics.

Common terms in literature Lebensraum (living space), “growth pole”, “power pole”, “geopolitical field”, “growth center”, etc. can be used for one-sided coverage of purely military-political, economic, ideological, etc. aspects of the world order. A more complex term, especially in the context of the development of geopolitics of interaction, to denote the subject of geopolitics is the field of interaction.

The field of interaction is a segment of social activity that interacts with a certain geographical space that is identified on the basis of a combination (overlay) of geostrategies of interested actors.

Fields of interaction with the leading function can be economic, political, military, ideological, civilizational, environmental, etc. or integral.

Since geopolitics is a social science, the object and subject of its research are in constant dynamics, reflecting the changing reality.

Fixing and forecasting the boundaries of interaction fields, the dynamic mosaic of which forms the geopolitical structure of the world, is the main task of geopolitics. Other tasks: research of mechanisms and forms of control over the geospace (currently the most effective forms of control are considered to be control over communications, various kinds of flows (information, goods, etc.) and geopolitical bases); geopolitical zoning of the planet based on the delimitation of geopolitical fields of leading actors; identification of objectively existing spatial political units, geostrategic zones and geopolitical regions; overcoming confrontational logic in international relations; development of geopolitical codes for subjects of geopolitics, etc.

The level of development of any science is evidenced by the degree of development of its conceptual and terminological apparatus. Geopolitical terminology is penetrating more and more deeply into all spheres of life. At the same time, the polysemantic, sometimes opposite, meaning of individual terms turns out to be clearer. The formation of a theory of geopolitics and its conceptual and terminological apparatus is possible in line with the development of academic geopolitics. Let's try to place the main accents.

After the compromise of geopolitics by representatives of the German school in the 30s and 40s XX V. Western scientists rejected the very term “geopolitics” and began to develop almost the same concepts within the framework of geostrategy. Now geostrategy is the leading concept of geopolitics, which is based on the predetermination of the direction of a subject’s foreign policy and foreign economic actions by geographical, primarily natural-geographical, factors and its geolocation. The task of geopolitical strategy is to analyze the position of the subject under study and determine the possibilities of its transformation in the desired direction. In a broad sense, geostrategy is the art of implementing political or other activities by subjects of geopolitics in the conditions of geospace.

Whatever factors - natural or social - predetermine the position of the state in the world hierarchy, important point its existence is the geopolitical position of the state territory. Regarding the positioning of the state in relations with other actors, the term geopolitical position is used.

The key concept of geopolitics is the concept of geopolitical concept (doctrine).

Geopolitical doctrine is a model for understanding the factors of the structure of the territorial-political world order and the directions of political activity and analysis based on geographical realities (G. Dnestriansky, 2003). Along with the scientific nature, one should note the subjectivity, ideological bias and even mysticism inherent in geopolitical doctrines, which are the methodological basis for applied developments. (The essence of the most important geopolitical concepts is outlined in the next topic.)

Most geopolitical doctrines are the embodiment of interests: national, state, coalition, private. All of them are diverse, but usually lie in the plane of preserving the independence and integrity of states, ensuring the survival of nations and the prosperity of citizens, expanding political and economic influence, and achieving a certain private goal. The main task of their implementation is the targeted strengthening of the geopolitical position and geo-economic power of the actors. Even one and a half hundred years ago, the Prime Minister of Britain, Lord G. Palmerston (1784 - 1865) noted: “the state has neither permanent friends nor permanent enemies, it has only permanent interests.” This thesis has become popular and is known to any educated politician, especially to a scientist.

It is worth noting that national and state interests completely coincide only if there is a real civil society in a single-national state. Only in this case will it be fair to say that “national interest is an integral expression of the interests of all members of society, which are realized through political system, it combines the interests of each person, the interests of national, social, political groups and the interests of the state" (V. Madisson, V. Shakhov, 2003).

It is the categories “geopolitical concept” and “geopolitical interests” that, through the engagement of researchers, add subjectivity to geopolitics, transforming it into a worldview concept.

The formation of the direction of a state’s foreign strategy must be consistent with its geopolitical code. Geopolitical code (code) - “this is a set of strategic ideas that the government (country - V.S.) forms about other states when developing its foreign policy"(V. Kolosov, M. Mironenko, 2002).

According to J. Gaddis (1982), these operational collections of laws contain: a definition of state interests, identification of external threats to these interests, possible response options and their justification. Despite the fact that each state builds its own code, they can overlap, interact and - naturally - enter into disputes with each other. Depending on its geopolitical location, a state may have a local, regional, global geopolitical code, or a combination of these.

One of the essential categories of geopolitics, which is closely intertwined with state interests, is the category of expansion. Since geopolitics must serve the national interests of the state, geopolitical concepts are designed to justify its expansion. And the seven basic laws of spatial growth of the state by F. Ratzel, and the three spatial factors of G. Kjellen, and the six criteria of the planetary status of the state by A. Megen, not to mention the German geopolitics of the 30s and 40s XX Art., were aimed precisely at this.

Both the mechanisms and forms of control over space are not constant. Geopolitical concepts recent years(P. Taylor, S. Brzezinski, I. Wallerstein, J. Yegnew, S. Cobridge, etc.) note that hegemony (leadership) is based on economic supremacy. In connection with this, the main type of expansion is now economic, which is complemented and enhanced by information, cultural-civilizational, religious, political, relegating the military to the background. The concept of complete control was replaced by the concept of control over “lines” - communications, material and information flows and over geopolitical bases.

As a result of the combination of geopolitical fields of key geopolitical actors, a balance of power is formed as an immanent characteristic of a certain historical stage of development. The mechanisms for forming the balance of power depend on the will of geostrategic players and the type of international system. And although after the Congress of Vienna (1815) the search for moral and legal norms and principles for the development of international relations began, military power remains the main factor in the formation of the world hierarchy.

Such important categories of geopolitics as “state” and “border”, discussed in part 1 of this book. We also note that geopolitics as a social science widely uses the categories of sociology, political science, cultural studies, demography (ethnicity, nation, civilization, identity, etc.), adapting them to the needs of geopolitical research.

Studying the contents of the paragraph provides an opportunity:

Ø study the essence of the concept of geopolitics;

Ø get acquainted with various international associations of countries around the world.

Among the world's global problems The most important is the problem of maintaining peace and disarmament, which became especially acute after the Second World War in connection with the invention of weapons of mass destruction.

Currently, the international situation, despite its complexities and contradictions, is gradually changing from confrontation to cooperation, and the threat of global nuclear destruction is decreasing. The leading states of the world have signed agreements on the elimination of certain classes of missiles, the reduction of strategic offensive weapons, the reduction in the number of armed forces, etc. In the field of nuclear weapons control, the Treaty Banning Nuclear Tests in the Atmosphere, Outer Space and Under Water (1963) was adopted; the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1996); Non-Proliferation Treaty nuclear weapons(1968); Treaty between Russia on the reduction of strategic offensive weapons - START-1 (1991) and START-2 (1993).

In 1997, the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction came into force, which was ratified by most countries of the world, including the USA, Russia, and China. The process of gradual reduction of conventional weapons continues,

However, even if international relations are improved, the threat to peace remains real. As before, up to 1 trillion 100 billion dollars (2007) are spent on the arms race (47% of this is in the United States.) Significant material and human resources are involved (over 25 million people are employed in the armies of the world's states). The number of states possessing nuclear weapons is growing, and new ones are emerging. dangerous species weapons, international terrorism is intensifying. The threat of international terrorism became especially urgent after the terrorist attacks in September 2001 in New York and Washington and in October 2002 in Moscow. As a result of these actions, thousands of people have died, and millions live in fear and psychological discomfort. (Name the regions of the World (countries) where there is tension and local wars. What are the causes of conflicts and what ways to resolve them, in your opinion, are the most acceptable?)

Political geography. Political geography is the science of territorial differentiation of political phenomena and processes. Modern political-geographical research is focused on studying the territorial distribution of class and political forces in the world as a whole and in its large regions. At the global and regional levels, changes on the political map of the world associated with the formation of new states, changes political system And state borders. Changes in the balance of power among political, military and economic groups, as well as territorial aspects of international relations, hotbeds of tension and military conflicts are also considered.

Political-geographical location is directly related to political geography. Political-geographical position (PGP) is a set of political conditions related to the geographical location of countries (regions) and the interaction of its population with surrounding countries and international unions. Political-geographical relationships are changing, which is due to both internal processes in countries and the surrounding space. ( How has the political and geographical position of Belarus changed at present?)

The political-geographical position is closely related to the economic-geographical position, since economics and politics are closely related.

In connection with the development of society and changes in economic geographical location, caused by the development of transport, the service sector, foreign trade, changes are also occurring in the political and geographical location. The economic and geographical location has both a positive and negative impact on the economic development of the country ( Give specific examples).

Despite the positive changes on the political map of the world, there are still regions of political and ethno-confessional tensions and local wars. Africa and Asia are characterized by the greatest instability. Currently, the world is experiencing the collapse of global finance, the uncontrolled spread of nuclear weapons, the expansion of international conflicts, the growth of drug trafficking, criminalization and terrorism.

There is now a stable Islamic “arc” of instability in the world from the Balkans to the Philippines. The centers of instability in Asia are Israel, Palestine, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan, India, China, Mnyamna, North Korea, etc.

In political geography, one of the areas is geopolitics. Geopolitics(from the Greek geos - earth and politic - politics, the art of statecraft) - a political concept according to which state policy, mainly external, is determined by its geographical factors. The main geopolitical factors are geographical (space, location, natural conditions and resources), political (type of government system, social structure of society, relationships with other states, participation in political alliances and blocs, presence of hot spots), economic (standard of living of the population, degree of development of leading sectors of the economy), military (level of development, feature and combat readiness of the armed forces, military expenditures, etc.), environmental (the degree of degradation of the natural environment and measures to protect it), demographic (the nature of population reproduction, its composition and distribution), cultural and historical (the level of development of science, education, healthcare, cultural traditions) and ethnic relationships. Thus, geopolitics studies the dependence of the foreign policy of states and international relations on the system of political, economic, environmental, military-strategic relationships, which are determined by the geographical location of the country, physical and economic-geographical factors.

The founder of geopolitics is the German scientist Friedrich Ratzel (1844 – 1904), who in 1897 in his work “Political Geography” expressed the idea of ​​“living space”. According to Ratzel's theory, to improve its geographical position, the state has the right to change borders and increase its territory by seizing neighboring lands. This concept at one time became the ideological basis of Nazi expansion.

Geopolitics is always connected with the state and is guided by its interests, and is historical in nature. Geographical factor (geographical location, size of territory, presence natural resources) influences foreign policy, but the geographical environment cannot serve main reason social development. The foreign policy of states, as historical experience shows, changes in connection with changes in socio-economic conditions, but cannot in any way be a consequence of geographical conditions undergoing very slowly changes. The modern world is divided by numerous borders (state, ethnic, religious), which are constantly changing and becoming more complex. Processes are underway to divide the borders and waters of the World Ocean (territorial waters, two-hundred-mile economic zones). The political situation in individual regions(countries) where conflicts arise, which is predetermined by the alignment of political forces, the activities of mass socio-political movements, and ethnic processes. In turn, political factors influence the socio-economic development of countries and international cooperation. The geographic environment in which a nation develops determines important characteristics of the life of that nation in the global community of states. This is, first of all: character economic development and interaction with the outside world, the degree of propensity for expansion, place in generally civilized development at a certain historical stage. The tendency to maximize its power in one form or another (increase in territory, economic dominance, political dominance) is natural for any state over the course of long historical development. Thus, an important aspect of geopolitics is the assessment of the power of the state through taking into account territory, space, types of borders (their security). This also includes: population size; availability and volume of natural resources (raw materials); economic and technological development; racial homogeneity; political stability; national spirit, etc. The main essence of geopolitics is related to the idea control over space (territory). The territory itself is a repository of almost all natural resources. Therefore, the territory must be treated with the same care as all other natural resources.

In the first stages of human development, control over space was carried out in the form of direct influence - military or political control. With the development of scientific and technological revolution and growing interdependence in the world, control over space acquires new, partly transnational forms: economic, communication, information.

Control over space, as a sphere of influence and use, can be exercised by land, ocean, air and space. In the future, the role of near-Earth space for control over earthly space will increase. An attempt was made to achieve complete military control over the US near-Earth space through the SDI program. (What is the essence of this program?).

One form of control over space is political, which is based on party, state and administrative infrastructures. Examples of political control are London’s delegation of control over India to the British East India Company in the 19th century, and complex political control in 1949–1953. former USSR over China, etc.

Military control is considered a classic example of geopolitics and involves maintaining control over a certain territory by military means.

Economic control is intensifying with the globalization of international relations and the increasing impact of the economy on all aspects of life in modern society.

Communication control has a direct impact on the overall degree of state control over a particular space.

Demographic control is a significant geopolitical factor not only for states with areas with low population density (Russia, Canada, Australia), but also for states with problems with overpopulation (meaning China's demographic control over Xinjiang by relocating ethnic Chinese (Han) there. Demographic control is important not only over the territory of one’s own state, but also for direct or indirect control over the territories of other states. For example, China’s relations with countries. South-East Asia determined by the fact that in these countries ethnic Chinese make up a significant part of the population, and in Singapore they are the majority. In this regard, the PRC, as the core of the Chinese ethnic group, can control a significant area.

Information control associated with the development of funds mass media, especially television and radio communications. Information control over a relatively independent space can lead the subject of information dissemination to significant political, economic and communication changes.

Geopolitics has gone through a number of stages in its development. If on the first from the end of the 19th to the 80s. In the 20th century, the focus was on discussing military-political contradictions, the struggle for the territorial redistribution of the world and the aggravation of “ cold war", then in the system of international relations there has now been a warming of the global geopolitical climate, when military confrontation was replaced by political, economic and cultural interaction between countries and regions. The geopolitics of confrontation has been replaced by the geopolitics of interaction, however, the global geopolitical situation is complicated by the fact that in a multipolar world, one superpower stands out - the United States, which has not abandoned the policy of world dictatorship and the new world order from the point of view of the “sphere of influence” and “living space”.

One of the original geopolitical positions that developed in the West at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries is the doctrine of the confrontation between continental (tellurocratic) and maritime (thalassocratic) forces. Tellurocracy (Greek - power through the Earth, or land power), thalassocracy (Greek - power through the sea, or sea power).

The role of maritime and continental powers was first analyzed by Alfred Thayer Mahan (1840–1914). He put forward the idea of ​​​​the advantage of a maritime power over a continental one. The naval power of a state is determined by its sea power, military and merchant fleets, and naval bases.

According to A. Mahan, the geopolitical status of a state is determined by the following provisions: 1) the geographical location of the state, its openness to the seas, the possibility of sea communications with other countries. The length of land borders, the ability to control strategically important regions; 2) the configuration of sea coasts and the number of ports located on them; 3) the length of the territory. It is equal to the length of the coastline; 4) Statistical population size; 5) national character; 6) the political nature of government.

In the views of many American geopoliticians, the prevailing idea is the need to extend US dominance after World War II to key regions of the world and abandon the concept of isolationism. In their opinion, the fundamentals of the country’s security must be considered at the global level (integrated control over territories) and active intervention in the affairs of Eurasia.

Geostrategy- this is the theory and practice of implementing the vital interests of the state, union of states, nation, people. Developing a state's geostrategy is the main goal of geopolitics. It is aimed at solving both domestic and foreign policy problems, taking into account the demographic and social situations, as well as economic and military potential. Geostrategy is the art of managing the development of a state based on the development of national interests that have internal socio-economic potential. Geostrategy considers all spheres of life in modern society.

Questions and tasks.

1. Why is the problem of maintaining peace and preventing nuclear war the most pressing among global problems?

2. What is the main essence of geopolitics?

3. What forms of spatial control exist? Give examples..

4. What factors characterize the geopolitics of any state?

Political geography is a type of economic and social geography that borders on political science. It emerged as an independent concept relatively recently: at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. Its founder is considered to be a German geographer who published a book under the same title in 1897. His book was initially criticized because it suggested that it was justifiable for a strong state to take over weakened and neighboring countries. It was most severely persecuted when the Nazis took advantage of its provisions for the practical purposes of the Reich. It was on the ideas of F. Ratzel that geopolitics was formed, which in the USSR was considered as a tool for conquering territories.

As for this term, it was first introduced by the Swedish scientist R. Kjellen. In the Soviet Union, the movement of geopolitical thought was under strict control state, therefore this area of ​​knowledge practically did not develop.

Today, this concept is interpreted as a science about the territorial differences in political phenomena and processes.

Thus, political geography studies:

1. Creation of a global and regional political map.
2. Territorial change of political boundaries.
3. Specifics government structure.
4. Political blocs, groups and parties.
5. Election campaigns from the point of view of their territorial plans.

Of wide interest to researchers is the assessment of individual states, i.e. the specifics of their position in relation to allies and neighbors. Political geography tends to change over time, which is why it is considered a historical category.

Note that this science has several main directions:

1. Geopolitics, which is in charge of the global system.
2. Geographical state science.
3. Regional political science.
4. Regional elites.

Political geography and geopolitics as its structural element are always under the close attention of researchers who analyze domestic and foreign policy. The fact is that geopolitics expresses a country’s line of behavior in relation to state borders. It examines the country's interaction with other powers, in particular with its neighbors.

Looking at the Second World War and the Cold War, all concepts in this direction sought to analyze the causes of territorial conquests, the creation of military bases and occupation, as well as military and government interventions in the structure of other countries. In a sense, modern geopolitics also has a similar orientation, but its specificity lies in the fact that more attention is already paid to the principles international security.

Political geography is currently actively developing as a science. In particular, if we consider its geopolitical features, their manifestation in the modern world is globalization. When the existing balance was destroyed. Tendencies to establish order with the help of military forces are beginning to prevail, and the opinion of its representative body - the UN - is not taken into account. As a response to these actions, anti-globalization movements emerge, which quickly acquire an aggressive character.

Currently, political geography is developing along with social geography. However, this entails the emergence of criminal organizations, extremism, feminism and religions. Also very interesting industries from the point of view of the nature of their occurrence are the geography of culture and the service sector.

Note that it fully reflects the era and the changes taking place in it. However, it underwent the greatest changes in the 20th century, as researchers note.

The geographical approach described above, however, extends unevenly to geopolitical research. It is not surprising that researchers solve the problem of mutual positioning of geopolitics, political science and political geography in different ways. Some consider geopolitics as a specific part of political geography [Aksenov 1992, p. 336-337; Gladky 2006, p. 471; Elsukov 2001; Mikhailov 2002, p. 6; Turovsky 1999], others - as a specific part of political science (political science) [Makhonin 2012; Tsym-bursky 1999 p. 25]). In a broad context, political geography itself is included in the system of political sciences. But many authors hesitate to unambiguously determine the subordination of geopolitics in this dichotomy. J. Martin, for example, noted this duality back in 1959: “Geopolitics can be regarded as an inevitable development of political geography; or as a branch of political science that borrows materials and methods from political geography... Political geography and geopolitics differ only in emphasis, but political geography is not geopolitics, just as geopolitics is not political geography...” [Magn 1959, p. 444]. The discussion continues in this vein to this day.

In general, in geopolitical research there have objectively emerged two “poles”, unequal in the number of authors, mastered respectively by representatives of geographical and political sciences. There is no clear boundary between them, but the “nuclei of gravity” are visible quite clearly. The connections of geopolitics with these two poles are indeed uneven, but this has developed historically and does not follow from their very nature. On the one hand, P. Taylor positions geopolitics as “the periphery of the periphery of the periphery,” meaning that geopolitics is only on the periphery of political geography, and the latter, in turn, is on the periphery of geography as a whole. On the other hand, geopolitics “wedges itself” almost into the very core of the science of international relations, where it can directly influence

significant influence on diplomacy and political decision-making [Mataboiy, Euktk 2006, p. 352-353].

One of these methodological “poles”, which has a clear inclination towards political science, can be called, conditionally, geopolitical science 1. In its extreme expression, geopolitics begins to lose its scientific identity and rather resembles comparative political science, political philosophy, sociology, or even psychology. The other, political-geographical pole could receive the conventional name “geographical geopolitics” [Kolosov 1992, p. 16-17] or “geopolitography” 2. However, geopolitics in any case retains autonomy in relation to political science and their differentiation does not cause much controversy. Therefore, the most controversial issue is the distinction between geopolitics and political geography as having a common origin and a common content-ontological basis in the form of GPO.

Attempts to find the line between geopolitics and political geography lead to the fact that this line sometimes slips away. And this is understandable, since, according to the views of many modern authors, there is in fact no “gap” between foreign and domestic policies, supposedly “descriptive” political geography and “constructive” geopolitics. Problems of this kind are discussed in other geographical sciences. Thus, there is a question of distinguishing between environmental geography and geoecology. The authors of one of the monographs convince the reader that “geoecology is broader than environmental geography: the object of its research is not only the environment... but also man himself and anthropogenic formations... and most importantly, their ecological relationships; in addition, geoecology is part of ecology (albeit at the intersection with geography), and not geography” [Zhirov, Mosin, Solomin 2002, p. 34]. Yu.N. Gladky notes in this regard that for science itself the answer to whose sphere of “knowledge” geoecology should be attributed “is not of significant importance” [Gladky 2010, p. 337]. Biogeography can be divided into biological geography and geographic biology. It is proposed to distinguish them according to the main subject of research - respectively, by territorial complexes with biological content and biological complexes in spatial terms [Kafanov 2009]. In the first case, we obtain a system of regions, in the second, a correlation between the geographical distribution of species. In the first case, the primary discipline is [physical] geography, in the second - biology.

However, it will not be possible to apply this approach to political geography and geopolitics. Geopolitics freely operates with territorial complexes (for example, the Heartland-Rimland), and political geo-

Some political scientists propose the term "geopolitical science" as a synonym for "geopolitics" as a science. But this did not find widespread support.

True, simply “politography” is a term from another field related to the handling of political images and images. graphite - a spatial expression of political processes (this is clearly visible, for example, in electoral geography). And thematically, the issues of political geography and geopolitics are very similar: political-geographical and geopolitical position, territorial distribution of political forces, zones of geopolitical fault lines, geography of political identities, etc.

Historically, geopolitics has developed over many centuries as a rather disparate set of individual ideas and concepts, including within the framework of geography. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. it begins to crystallize into a specific research direction on the basis of scientific political geography, which was actively developing in that period as the most suitable scientific substrate (works of F. Ratzel, H. Mackinder, V.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, etc.) [see: Kaledin 1996]. Nevertheless, a significant part of geopolitical research continued to be carried out outside the framework of political geography, since it turned out to be irreducible to it. Political geography, having become the basis for the design of geopolitics, itself begins to be geopoliticized. Subsequently, the separation of geopolitics into an independent direction did not stop, and perhaps even stimulated, the geopoliticization of the rest of political geography. She became more and more dynamic and looked for a way out into practice. The still common opinion that political geography is interested only in past development and “static” parameters is clearly outdated.

At the same time, geopolitics sought to deepen its research by entering the regional and local levels, at which it has always been created. most of daily realpolitik. Since the 1970s, the school of the French geopolitician I. Lacoste, which developed around the journal Herodotus, which he founded, has gained some fame in this regard. As a result, all this led to the intersection of two disciplines not only in the theoretical and methodological part, but also in the thematic part. Moreover, already in the pre-war period, one of the classics of American political geography, D. Whittlesey, and his followers used the adjective “geopolitical” as a convenient abbreviation for the expression “political-geographical” [Hartshorn 1957, p. 173].

At the same time, there is a noticeable inclination of geopolitics and political geography to different “nodal” scales of research: geopolitics to the global and macro-regional, and political geography to the country and local. This means that the same territory, if taken as a base level, will be considered by geopolitics mainly “from the bottom up”, i.e. in a global or macro-regional context, and by political geography - “from top to bottom”, i.e. in the context of smaller units down to individuals (sociological approach). If political geography is interested, simplistically, in “places of interaction,” then geopolitics is interested in “interaction of places.” The latter forces one to take into account the entire set of external influences up to the global level.

There is a widespread point of view that geopolitics as a scientific direction acts as an applied link (section) of political geography [Aksenov 1992, p. 336; Höttner 1930, p. 144; Kaledin 1996, p. 134-135]. But the counterargument against this approach is that general theoretical geopolitics, although still in its infancy, cannot be an applied discipline. If we deny its very possibility, then we will have to assume that geopolitics does not have its own theoretical core, which would call into question the independence of geopolitics as a field of knowledge. The article by V.L. is of significant interest from the point of view of comparing the two disciplines. Tsymbursky. Analyzing the views of different authors, he identifies the common difference between geopolitics and political geography - a project approach and a strong-willed attitude to space. “We can conclude that geopolitics begins where there is—even in a plan or in a mental model—a volitional political act, starting from the potentialities seen in a specific space” [Tsymbursky 1999]. However, in our opinion, such interpretations ignore the other side of geopolitical analysis - geopolitical positioning (for example, consideration of potential geopolitical threats). Geopolitical engineering may or may not be the next step in such research. A.I. Treyvish and V.A. Shuper, for example, believe that political geography studies “the role of political processes in the territorial organization of society,” and geopolitics studies “the balance of forces and interests on the chessboard” [Treyvish, Shuper 1992, p. 31]. From the point of view of Yu.N. Gladky, “if the object of political geography is all forms of organization of society that arise in the process of interaction between political life and geospace (an overly broad definition. - A.E.), That the range of interests of geopolitics is limited only to issues of control over geospace"[Gladky 2006, p. 471].

When moving to design, we inevitably capture areas that are not related to political geography. R. Hartshorn, studying German geopolitics, came to the following conclusion back in 1935: “geopolitics... is a simple application of the provisions and methods of political geography to problems of international relations.” “However, since it soon became obvious that the solution of these problems required many other information, geopolitics ... became both broader in scope and narrower in purpose” [Hartshorne 1957, p. 173]. However, one can argue about “broader in scope”, since, going, on the one hand, beyond the boundaries of political geography, geopolitics, on the other hand, simultaneously refuses the redundant part of the political-geographical subject FIELD.

From the point of view of the approach we use, we can evaluate geopolitics and political geography as two disciplines that use different paradigms to study one object, distinguishing from it 136

various items. Geopolitics considers potential or actually existing GPOs between geospace, on the one hand, and geopolitical subjects with their interests and political activities, on the other.(This is what appears, in a particular case, as a volitional attitude towards space according to Tsymbursky). And, accordingly, it is not at all necessary to engage in “designing” these GPOs in order to remain within the framework of geopolitical research. But here the analysis of potential and real strengths and weaknesses, opportunities and threats comes to the fore. When we study the world or a region as a whole, we see a whole network of GPOs of individual actors, forming bizarre patterns.

In political geography, the main attention is paid to GPO between geospace and the entire aggregate political life society (its political self-organization).“Political geography,” writes V.A. Kolosov, - studies interaction with integral geospace political sphere... activities...” [Kolosov, Mironenko 2001, p. 242]. But since political self-organization in the geospatial aspect represents the actual political geospace, then, taking it “out of the brackets,” we can say that political geography studies the relationship of political geospace with all the total activities of society, including political, and all other spheres of geospace. Thus, here we return to (geo)correlation relationships as the main subject geographical research according to Yu.N. Gladky (see paragraph 1.3.2).

Thus, the spheres of geopolitics and political geography intersect at the very core: the general theoretical basis (the essence of GPO) and the relationship of political space with political activity. At the same time, the nature of the entire subject as a whole (context) and its methodological coordinate system determine the point of view on these questions. But, as we have already noted, there is an opinion that geopolitics is just a section of political geography. This is partly true, since when objects intersect, their fragments turn out to be mutually integrated. What if you include it in its entirety? Then the subject of political geography turns out to be all GPOs indiscriminately, as well as the factors influencing them. Even those who are traditionally not interested in political geography. Such questions find themselves on the periphery of the broadly understood subject field of political geography (Fig. 18). This area, however, partly covers the main part (core) of the subject field of social geography as a whole.

Geopolitics also has a periphery of its subject field, but it is smaller and does not, in turn, cover all of political geography (which is why the opinion that political geography is a branch of geopolitics is practically never encountered). But it goes beyond even the peripheral subject of political geography (Fig. 18). For example, dis-

I was not looking at political or geographical issues. The fact is that with the discussed difference between the two disciplines, an important consequence arises: geopolitics, in contrast to political geography, can attribute political meaning to non-political phenomena (mainly geographical, but not only) [Tsymbursky 1999], and further identify their GPO and include them into geopolitical space (see mediated GPO in paragraph 2.4.2).

Rice. 18.The relationship between political geography and geopolitics

by subjects of study

Accordingly, both disciplines can study political processes at any scale: from local to global, from international to domestic. Distinctive feature the political meaning of the analysis becomes closely linked with geopolitical interest. Thus, the use of the “Gerry salamander” method (gerrymandering) to win elections for a particular candidate is in the field of applied political (electoral) geography. It can also be used to assess geopolitical risks commercial companies. But determining the spatial strategy for the elections of an entire party that is under the influence of external forces is already an element of internal geopolitics.

Definition 1

Political geography is a geographical discipline that studies the relationship between the political activity of the population and the geographical territorial space in which it occurs.

This science studies controlled political and territorial systems that can function only within established boundaries (state, constituencies, their associations, units of territorial-administrative division, etc.), as well as unmanaged systems whose boundaries do not coincide with the established ones (geopolitical regions, political and geographical areas).

Main areas of research and object of political geography

The object of political geography is the territorial and political organization of society. In the system of geographical sciences this science Along with social, economic, cultural geography, it is part of socio-economic geography, synthesizing the findings of the geography of culture, economy and population.

The main areas of study of political geography are:

• studying the features of the state and political system, the administrative-territorial structure of world states, as well as their forms of government;
• study of the formation of the territory of the state, its political, geographical location and territorial boundaries;
• consideration and study of geographical differences in the social structure of the population (including the religious and national composition of society);
• analysis of the feasibility of the alignment of party and political forces;
• studying the geographical principles of elections to various government bodies.

Political geography is included in the system of geographical sciences, since its goal is to study specific social and economic territorial objects and the relationship between their elements.

Theoretical foundations of the discipline of political geography

The origins of the discipline of Political Geography lie in the beginnings of economic geography, as early practitioners were concerned with the political and military implications of relations between state territories, physical geography And state power. There was also a close connection with regional geography, with special attention paid to its unique regional characteristics and environmental determinism, as well as the impact of the physical environment on human activity.

This association found expression in the work of the German geographer Friedrich Ratzel. In 1897, his book Politische Geographie developed the concept of living space and also identified the relationship between a country's cultural growth and territorial expansion. Further this work used to provide academic legitimation for the imperialist expansion of the German Third Reich in the 1930s.

Note 1

The French philosopher and economist Anne Robert Turgot in the mid-18th century identified the relationship between physical-geographical factors and political processes. But only 150 years later did political geography emerge as an independent scientific direction.

Definition 2

Political geography is a social and geographical science that studies the territorial distribution of political phenomena and processes.

Today, political geography is developing at the intersection of political science and geography, as well as sociology, state and municipal law and other social sciences, which make this discipline quite integrated into social life. In political geography, the process of differentiation is carried out. For example, electoral geography can develop at the intersection of a number of sciences as an independent discipline.

Political geography studies:

• formation of a political map of the world, as well as individual areas and regions;
• changing the political boundaries of states;
• features of the functioning of government;
• political groupings, parties and blocs;
• territorial features of mass election campaigns.

All of the above factors can be considered at the global, state, regional and local levels.

Figure 1. Political geography. Author24 - online exchange of student works

Subject of study of political geography

Definition 3

Geographical politics (geopolitics) is a direction of political thought about control over territory, as well as about the patterns of redistribution of centers of power of various states and associations between them.

In other words, geopolitics is the science of vast spaces, large-scale political, economic and other processes, as well as the principles of managing them.

Geopolitics is a kind of indicator of the success of political activity with the help of historical, geographical, ethnographic, socio-psychological and economic factors.

More scientists Ancient world established an organic relationship between political activity and the space of the Earth, where this activity unfolded. But really, is it really possible to develop and carry out political activity in a territory about which you do not know such indicators as area, topography, vegetation, climate, the presence of rivers and other bodies of water (such as water barriers and communication routes). Is it possible to achieve victory in military operations if you do not know about the spatial factors of the specific terrain in which the army will fight. Moreover, one cannot count on retaining and owning a certain territory without knowing about its population (number, density and other demographic indicators).

Note 2

In a narrow sense, geopolitics is a discipline that has own method and studies addiction public policy and geographical factors. In the broad concept of this term, this means the consciously pursued or spontaneously formed policy of countries to the extent that it is related to territorial and geographical factors.

The term “geopolitics” consists of two parts - geo and politics: “geo” is territory, land (the influence of geographical factors on state policy).

The main geographical factors are:

• territory of the state;
• geographical location of the country;
• the length of the border of a political subject, as well as its position on artificial or natural boundaries;
• the presence of bodies of water as communication routes or possible barriers;
• the position of the state in relation to the sea (length of the coastline and possible conditions for navigation);
• climatic conditions (climate – hot, temperate, cold, arid, etc.);
• soil characteristics (how much it can affect the development Agriculture, infrastructure or industry);
• the wealth of subsoil and their ability to meet the social needs of the population, as well as its economic growth;
• number, density and social composition of the population.