Russian army during the period of Kievan Rus. Birth of the cavalry

- “... The nobility and the highest and most exalted military wisdom, regulations, customs and wisdom to fight as good as possible, with which from the beginning of the world and after the coming of our Savior all the monarchs and kingdoms and states of the entire universe were searched for, and were accessible, and were maintained until this day...”

(“Teaching and cunning of the military formation of infantry people”
Moscow, 1647)

The basis of the ancient Russian army was the “regiment”, which in the ancient understanding meant an organized battle order, as opposed to a mass, a crowd. “Standing in a regiment” meant being armed and taking an orderly position on the battlefield, which in the old days was called a “horde” or “battleground.” Subsequently, a “regiment” began to be called a separate army or squad that had its own commander, its own banner - “banner”, and was an independent combat unit.

During the heyday and power of Kievan Rus (XI-XII centuries), the main formation of the Russian army for battle was the so-called “regimental rank” - division along the front into three components: a “large regiment” or “person”, consisting of infantry; - " right hand" And " left hand" - horse regiments standing on the flanks. This formation is very reminiscent of the ancient Greek “phalanx”, also covered by cavalry on the flanks, which was later adopted by the Roman Empire. The ancient Rus could well have become acquainted with it during the wars with Byzantium in the 9th-10th centuries.

The “large regiment” on foot was stretched along the front in one line. The front of the foot regiment, where the soldiers stood in dense ranks, was called the “wall.” The first ranks were made up of spearmen who had good armor - “good armor” and large almond-shaped “scarlet” (i.e., crimson-red) shields that covered the warriors from their shoulders to their toes. The rear ranks placed their spears on the shoulders of those in front, forming a continuous palisade. For additional protection from attacks by enemy cavalry, the infantry could drive short, sharpened stakes along the front.
Armed and unarmored warriors with melee weapons - axes, clubs, boot knives - became worse in the rear ranks.
Archers - “streltsy” or “skirmishers” - at the beginning of the battle, as a rule, left the mass of a large regiment and stood in front of it in open ranks. However, as the battle progressed, they could be both in the depths of the formation and behind it, sending arrows over the heads of the front ranks.

The regiments of the “right” and “left” hands were made up of cavalry - the “mounted” or “top” army, the prince’s warriors, having in the front ranks the strongest and most heavily armed fighters. “Strong guards” were sent in all directions - reconnaissance and combat protection of the army.

The battle began with archers - “skirmishers”, crushing the front ranks of the advancing enemy with volleys from their powerful bows.
This was followed by a clash of main forces. The infantry in the center began to “cut hand to hand”, trying at the same time to withstand the onslaught of the enemy - “not to destroy the wall”, force him to get drawn into close combat and mix up his ranks, after which the cavalry of the right and left hands covered the enemy’s flanks, squeezed him and finished him off . If the “wall” was nevertheless broken through by the enemy, and enemy soldiers wedged themselves into the battle formations of a large regiment, the infantrymen gathered in so-called “piles”, standing with their backs to each other and closing their shields.

The first reliable evidence of the use of this military formation can be considered the description of the battle near the town of Listven, not far from Chernigov, where in 1024, in a dispute over the Chernigov lands, the armies of two brother princes came together: the Tmutarakan prince Mstislav and his older brother Yaroslav, who later became the great Kyiv prince Yaroslav Wise.

Mstislav’s warriors formed a “regimental row” on the battlefield: in the center were Chernigov foot warriors-militia, and on the flanks were Mstislav’s cavalry squad. The army of Prince Yaroslav, consisting of only infantry - hired Varangians and "eager" Novgorod fellows, stood in a dense, monolithic mass.
The battle was brutal, and the Varangians standing in the center began to defeat the Chernigov foot warriors. However, Mstislav's selected cavalry squad crushed their formation with a blow from the flanks. Everyone who did not die on the spot fled. The runners were not pursued - the princely dispute was resolved.

During the formation of Muscovite Rus' (XIV-XV centuries), the traditional “regimental row” became somewhat more complicated - it already amounted to five regiments. To the main forces - the same three regiments deployed along the front - “large”, “right hand” and “left hand”, additional regiments of the “advanced” (“guard”) and “ambush” (“rear”, “western”) are added "). The "watchmen", which were sent in small detachments in all directions, were consolidated into the sixth regiment - "ertaul".

It should be noted that specific gravity The cavalry in the Moscow army was constantly increasing, although the bulk was still infantry.
The battle strategy was as follows. The first to enter the battle was the “guard” regiment - lightly armed horsemen and horse archers. They came close to the enemy vanguard, and, following ancient tradition, began the battle with fights between the best fighters on both sides. These heroic fights made it possible to test the strength and fighting spirit of the enemy and gave the “initiation” to the entire battle. The outcome of these martial arts had a very great psychological significance for the outcome of the upcoming battle, and therefore many famous knights and daredevils joined the ranks of the guard regiment in advance. Having upset as much as possible the advanced detachments of the enemy, the regiment had to retreat behind the line of its main forces and joined them.

In the battle of the main forces, the foot “large regiment” played the role of a stable core of the army, withstanding the main onslaught of the enemy. The main one impact force There were cavalry regiments of the right and left hands, as well as an ambush regiment.

The regiments of the “right” and “left hand” consisted mainly of heavily armed cavalry - “forged army”. At the same time, the regiment of the “right hand” was the strongest of them and dealt the main blow, and the regiment of the “left hand” was the auxiliary blow.. The strongest squads and the most eminent princes and boyars were always placed on the “right hand”. It was more honorable to stand “on the right hand” than “on the left.” According to the “rank” - the military hierarchy of Muscovite Rus' in the 16th century - the governor of the “right hand” stood above the governor of the “left hand”.

“Ambush Regiment” is a general strategic reserve, the introduction of which at the right moment was supposed to decide the outcome of the battle. It was made up of selected, best squads, usually heavy cavalry. The “ambush” regiment was always placed on the left, as if balancing its mass with the regiment of the right hand. It was located so as not to be visible to the enemy until the time came - behind a forest, a hillside, behind the formation of the main forces.
According to written sources, similar tactics were used both against the Tatars and against the Western opponents of Rus' - Lithuania and the Order Germans.

In the 16th century, with the appearance in the Russian army large quantity firearms, to protect the “streltsy” the so-called “walk-city” was invented - a movable field fortification made up of large wooden shields with loopholes for shooting.

These shields, depending on the time of year, were placed on wheels or on runners, which made them easy to move during battle. The “walk-city” was transported disassembled on carts or sleighs and, before the battle, was quickly assembled by carpenters and archers from separate boards. Usually the “walk-gorod” was installed in front of the formation of the “large regiment”, and the guns of the “regimental outfit” were placed on the flanks. The cavalry attacked from the flanks, taking cover behind field fortifications if necessary.
The use of the “walk-city” in 1572 is documented in the grandiose battle near Moscow, near the village of Molodi, in which the Russian army under the command of the governor Prince M.I. Vorotynsky won a decisive victory over the army of the Crimean Khan Davlet-Girey.

In conditions of acute confrontation with warlike neighbors, Ancient Rus' would not have been able to establish itself as an independent national entity, which would be recognized and taken into account by other peoples, without a well-organized military affairs. During the formation of tribal unions, during the so-called period of military democracy, in case of general danger or during campaigns, the Slavs gathered an army and elected a leader - a prince. Initially, he was elected at a people's meeting - the veche, and then the power of the prince became hereditary. There were also advisers with him - tribal elders. The prince was entitled to a large share of military spoils and income from the land, which allowed him to maintain a squad with him - military comrades, professional warriors. Thus, an apparatus of power and a permanent core of troops were gradually created. By the end of the 8th century, the military forces of the ancient Slavs consisted of princely squads and people's militia. The militia was organizationally divided into clans (hundreds), tribes (regiments) and a union of tribes (army). The number of such formations at that time was different: for example, a clan - from 50 to 100 warriors.

The basis of the army was made up of foot soldiers, armed with two spears - a light throwing one (sulitsa) and a heavy one for hand-to-hand combat, as well as bows and swords. There was also cavalry. Byzantine sources repeatedly reported on Slavic horsemen who won victories even over the heavily armed cavalry (cataphracts) of the empire: “One of the enemy detachments (Slavs) entered into battle with Asbad (a warrior from the emperor’s bodyguard detachment). He commanded the regular cavalry, which... consisted of numerous excellent horsemen. And without much difficulty the Slavs put them to flight and killed many during this shameful flight” (1).
The battle formation of the Slavs was a deep formation in the form of columns. United by clan and tribal ties, they possessed enormous striking power. It is no coincidence that Byzantine military treatises ordered their commanders to maintain extreme caution when invading the lands of the Slavs: to have strong reconnaissance, fortify overnight and camp sites, and choose fairly level terrain for battle. All these precautions indicated that the Byzantine army, which preferred to fight with throwing weapons (archery) at a distance, could not withstand the massive pressure of the Slavic columns.
Slavic warriors fought skillfully both on the plain and in forests and mountains. Unlike the Byzantines, they sought to get close to the enemy, hit him with spears and arrows, and then began to fight hand-to-hand. The Danish chronicler Saxo Grammaticus (1140-1208) reported that the main fighting quality of the Slavic warrior was determination in battle: “In hand-to-hand combat, the Slavs threw the shield behind their backs... and with an open load... with a sword in their hand they rushed at the enemy "(2).
In the fight against the enemy, he improved and gained combat experience. If the enemy invaded unexpectedly and with a large army, the Slavic warriors attacked him in small detachments and “were in no hurry to measure their strength.” They used false retreats, organized ambushes and night attacks, exhausting and weakening the invaders. Having tired the enemy, the columns of the Slavs suddenly fell on him, trying to inflict complete defeat on him. Such tactics terrified the Byzantine warriors: every gorge and forest area was fraught with formidable danger. It is known that in 602 Byzantine soldiers rebelled, flatly refusing to participate in the campaign against the Slavic lands.
The Slavs widely used military cunning. They skillfully camouflaged themselves in the area. A Byzantine source says that the Slavs “were accustomed to hiding behind small stones or behind the first bush they came across and catching enemies” (3). Being taken by surprise, they knew how to dive into the water and for a long time, breathing through a hollow reed, stay at the bottom of the river. Byzantine writer of the 7th century. Theophylact Simokatta wrote that during campaigns, Slavic warriors set up field fortifications - camps made of carts. Hiding behind the carts, the Slavs inflicted heavy losses on the enemy with archery and carried out unexpected forays.

But it was not only on land that Slavic warriors distinguished themselves in battles. They were also known as skilled shipbuilders and sailors. Their longships (boats) could accommodate up to 20 warriors. The boat fleet made long sea voyages to Greece, Italy, Spain, and boldly entered into single combat with the Byzantine fleet. The Slavs skillfully organized the interaction of their fleet and ground forces. Sometimes, having started a battle on land, they pinned down the main forces of the enemy and at the same time landed part of the army in his rear on boats, “actions according to ... with the help of countless numbers of ships cut from one trunk (one-tree)
" (4).
Before battle, Slavic warriors swore an oath: to stand to the death for their father and brother, for the lives of their relatives. The word of honor was highly valued and obliged warriors to observe military twinning. Those who violated it were “knocked out of the ground” - expelled from the territory of the tribe. The Slavs considered captivity a disgrace. Such coordination in actions was inaccessible to the multi-ethnic army of the empire - in many ways, only the fear of cruel punishments kept the huge formations of the Byzantine phalanx in obedience. The resilience of the ancient Russian warrior in hand-to-hand combat was noted by Byzantine chroniclers. So, in 1019, the Byzantine army fought in Italy and in the first three battles suffered defeats from the Normans, “who remained victorious, but in the fourth battle, where they had to fight the Russian people (a detachment of Russian soldiers), they (the Normans) were defeated , turned into nothing” (5).
The combat skills of warriors were acquired not only in battles, but also in constant exercises in peacetime. Usually, at funeral feasts (funerals for deceased relatives), competitions of experienced warriors were organized, who introduced youths to the military profession. The fight of an unarmed warrior against an armed one was shown, the so-called abattoir fight, which included elements of protection from a sword or spear during a fight. The accumulated combat experience was passed on from generation to generation, preserving the best military traditions of Slavic warriors.
The Russian army, in the struggle to strengthen the political and economic positions of their state, showed high examples of military art, which clearly manifested themselves during the period of acute confrontation between Kievan Rus and Khazaria and Byzantium in the 10th century.
But Rus' was forced to fight not only the empire and the kaganate. Its borders were constantly hit by waves of raids by nomadic Pechenegs and Polovtsians. As for the Pecheneg raids, under Svyatoslav’s successors the Pechenegs tried to attack Rus', but were able to withstand only about eight battles. In 1036, the Kiev prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich (ruled from 1015 to 1054) inflicted a crushing defeat on the Pecheneg hordes, after which the Pechenegs chose to live in peace and bear border service in Rus'. To combat the nomadic danger, the Russian princes built a network of fortified fortress cities along the Desna, Vorskla, Sula, Stugna, and Ros rivers, which strengthened the defense of the steppe borders. Not only the garrisons of fortresses, but also mobile cavalry units took part in their defense. Having received news of the attack, they quickly went to the threatened areas and began to fight the nomads. Russian warriors achieved no less success in naval affairs.
The fleet of Kievan Rus consisted of longships. The river boat was made from hollowed out trunks of aspen, linden or oak. Sometimes three or four boards, each up to 30 centimeters high, were sewn onto the base. Such a boat (dugout, single-tree) easily crossed shallow waters and was dragged through dangerous river rapids without much difficulty.
Vessels intended for navigation on the seas had from 15 to 20 pairs of oars, were equipped with sails, were distinguished by sufficient speed and could accommodate from 40 to 50 people with supplies. A sea boat could accommodate from 8 to 10 war horses. In the middle of the 12th century, decked military ships with two rudders - stern and bow, which had great maneuverability, began to be built on the Dnieper.
The Rus' boat fleet was an integral part of their fighting forces and had its own characteristics. Therefore, there is no reason to assert that Rus' borrowed the art of navigation from the Scandinavians, as well as statehood.

The tactics of the Russian boat fleet can be judged by the news of an eyewitness - a major scientist of the 11th century, advisor to the Byzantine emperor Constantine (Michael) Psellus.
In 1042, Constantine IX Monomakh (1042-1055) ascended the throne, who dealt not only with his rivals, but also with those who could potentially support them. The Russian ambassador was one of the first to fall dead. In Constantinople, the emperor provoked an attack on Russian merchants and plundered Orthodox monastery in Athos. In response, the last sea campaign of the Russian boat fleet against Byzantium took place. It was headed by Yaroslav's son Vladimir.
In 1043, 15 thousand Russian soldiers on 400 boats unexpectedly appeared at the walls of the capital of Byzantium. Emperor Constantine Monomakh assembled a fleet - fire-carrying ships and heavy "transport" palace ships and lined them up against the Russian boats, "standing at the harbor on the other side." The Russians, the Byzantine historian reports, placed all their ships one by one in a row, in a chain, so to either “attack us themselves, or accept our attack.”
The opponents, having lined up their ships in battle formation at a certain distance from each other, did not move for a long time. The Russians expected an attack by Byzantine ships, and the Byzantines - Russians. Unable to withstand the tension, the Byzantine emperor ordered two big ships go to the Russians. “When they came forward smoothly and orderly, the spearmen and stone throwers from above raised a war cry, and the fire throwers lined up in an order convenient for throwing it; then most of the enemy boats sent towards, rowing quickly, rushed towards our ships, and then, dividing, surrounding and, as it were, encircling each of the individual triremes, tried to break through them from below with beams” (6).
Soon, the concerned Byzantine emperor sent all his ships to the Russian fleet, but things did not come to a general battle. Nature helped the Byzantines. An ensuing storm prevented the battle. A strong whirlwind pretty much battered the Russian boats, some of them were thrown ashore, as the Russian chronicler wrote, “and smashed the ships of Rus'.”
The Byzantine emperor organized the pursuit of the surviving part of the Russian flotilla. The Russians met 24 ships sent against them and boldly entered the battle. The Byzantines were defeated.
Vladimir Yaroslavich returned to Kyiv on boats. But a different fate awaited 6 thousand Russian soldiers, thrown ashore by a storm. They decided to reach their homeland by land, but near Varna they were surrounded and taken prisoner. The emperor ordered some of them to have their eyes gouged out, and others to have their right hands cut off so that they could not raise a sword against the empire.
Yaroslav began preparing a new campaign, and in the meantime, the emperor, who had come to his senses, hastened to send an embassy to Kyiv. He promised to compensate for all losses incurred by Russian merchants, return the prisoners to their homeland and give sixteen-year-old Vsevolod Yaroslavich his daughter Princess Maria, the future mother of the Russian commander Vladimir Monomakh, as his wife. In 1046 peace was concluded.
Thus ended the Russian campaign against Constantinople. The experience of this campaign testifies that the Russian boat fleet fought at sea in a certain, long-established formation. Having large Byzantine ships in front of them, Russian longships lined up “one in a row.” This battle formation was suitable both for attacking and for meeting the advancing enemy. When attacking, Russian boats rushed in groups towards large enemy ships. Each group of people surrounded the ship and immediately began to destroy its sides. As a result of these actions, the ship, having received holes, sank into the sea. There were probably also means (hooks with rope ladders) to climb from the boats onto the side of the ship. Not only on land, but also at sea, Russian soldiers were able to fight with experienced enemy sailors, which, undoubtedly, were the sailors of Byzantium.
In the last years of Yaroslav's reign, Kievan Rus reached the apogee of power. After the death of his brother Mstislav Vladimirovich in 1036, the Kiev prince became the sole “autocrat of the Russian land.”
Two years before his death, he divided the Russian lands between his sons. He gave Kyiv to Izyaslav, Chernigov to Svyatoslav, and Vsevolod was imprisoned in Pereyaslavl. At the same time, he ordered his sons not to quarrel over lands. But this reasonable advice had no effect. After the death of Yaroslav in 1054, the first signs appeared feudal fragmentation on the lands of Rus'.
During the era of the beginning of the collapse of the once unified state into separate principalities, changes also occurred in the military organization of Rus'. In the armed forces, feudal militias - armed detachments, fielded by individual princes - began to occupy an increasing place. These units were called regiments. The regiments were gathered in the cities of the Russian lands and brought to the battlefield by the princes. The regiments were called by the name of the territory in which they were assembled (Kiev regiment, Novgorod regiment), or by the name of the prince who led the regiment. In case of serious military danger, a militia was convened at the call of the people's veche (meeting) free people- peasants and townspeople. Each family sent adult sons to it, with the exception of the youngest. Refusal was considered a shame. The people's militia took part in all major wars against external enemies. Only thanks to the support of the people were the grandiose campaigns and victories of the Russian army possible. The order of battle was also changed. It has been divided along the front and in depth, becoming more complex and flexible. Usually the Russian army at this time was built in a regimental row, which consisted of several independent regiments, united by common control: the forward, sometimes from two advanced regiments in the first line, the right wing, the center and the left wing in the second line. In front of the first line were soldiers armed with throwing weapons. The division of the Russian army into regiments can be traced throughout the entire period of developed feudalism. The regimental row became the main battle formation of the Russian army. It had the necessary stability and at the same time allowed flexible maneuvering on the battlefield, allowing regimental leaders to take the initiative in battle.
For battle, a wide, flat area was usually chosen, where visual and sound communication could be maintained between the regiments. After this, the Russian army formed into battle formation. The right to build (“arrange”) regiments before the battle belonged to the eldest prince. The army was controlled orally and with the help of signals with a banner, the sounds of a horn, trumpets and a tambourine. The battle began with warriors armed with throwing weapons. Being in front of the front regiment, they bombarded the enemy with arrows from a distance of 150-200 steps, and then retreated to the first line, i.e. to the forward regiment. Along with bows, Russian warriors skillfully used crossbows. The crossbow was a bow that was attached to a wooden stock equipped with a device for throwing arrows out of a special chute.

The riders were armed with a saber and a lightweight sword, adapted for cutting from a horse. But the predominant place in the cavalry was occupied by a heavily armed warrior with a spear. In the infantry, the warrior preferred an ax and throwing weapons. The outcome of the battle was decided in hand-to-hand combat.
The marching order of the Russian army during this period still consisted of guards, main forces and convoys. The guards were the most experienced warriors, who were entrusted with reconnaissance and security during the campaign. The watchman attached great importance great importance. The success of the entire campaign depended on reconnaissance of routes, timely collection of information about the enemy, and skillful guarding of the main forces during the campaign. With the help of foot envoys and mounted messengers, the “capital city” (capital) kept in touch with the army that had gone on a campaign. In case of extreme importance and complete secrecy of the news, it was encrypted, sealed and sent with authorized persons. There were several methods of secret writing. In Rus', encrypted news was called “gibberish letters” when the Glagolitic alphabet (signs) was used instead of the Cyrillic alphabet. In addition to messengers, signaling using fires was widely used. Signals were transmitted from special observation points located in the direction of a probable enemy invasion, from one point to another, until they reached the capital city.
The warriors in Rus' had the right to transfer to service from one prince to another. This right was confirmed every time in princely agreements. However, such transitions were very a rare occurrence. Since loyalty to the prince was considered one of the highest virtues of a warrior. It was considered a shame for the squad and for each of its members to leave the battlefield, and for the prince it was shameful to abandon his squad in danger. Military exploits and military merits have not gone without rewards since ancient times. The earliest insignia were gold neck hryvnias - medals that were worn around the neck on a chain.
Russian squads were familiar with the use of ambushes, luring the enemy with a deliberate retreat and then suddenly going on the offensive. The variety of combat formations and tactical techniques indicates that Russian military art during this period was in many ways superior to the military art of other countries. Western Europe, where the battlefields were dominated by single combat of heavily armed knights, and the infantry played the role of a living obstacle, doomed to destruction. It should also be noted that there are shortcomings in the organization of the armed forces. Old Russian state- the emerging disunity of the princes’ troops, which the nomadic peoples took advantage of when raiding Rus'. Princely strife ruined the people, undermined Russian statehood, creating a crisis situation within the country. This was aggravated by the invasion of nomadic hordes and had the character of a nationwide disaster.
In the 11th century In the southern Russian steppes, the Torks were replaced by Polovtsian hordes. And if the Torks were quite easily repulsed even by Vsevolod’s Pereyaslav army, then the wave of nomads that followed them marked the beginning of the grueling wars between Rus' and the steppe, which lasted more than 150 years. Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh (1053-1125) had to break the power of the Polovtsians. He managed to unite the military forces of the principalities and move from passive defense to a strategic offensive deep into the Polovtsian steppes. The results of the campaigns against the Cumans (1103, 1107, 1111) were impressive. Part of the hordes migrated to the North Caucasus and Georgia. The borders of Rus' have found peace. However, with the death of Vladimir Monomakh in 1125, the process of separation of Russian principalities resumed. The united Old Russian state practically ceased to exist, but its legacy in military affairs had a huge impact on the construction of the armed forces and the development of military art in subsequent centuries.
* * *
The wars of Ancient Rus' significantly enriched Russian military art: the strategy, tactics and organization of Russian troops received further development.
The strategy of the Russian army was decisive. For this purpose, long campaigns were carried out into enemy territory. Finding and defeating the main forces of the enemy was the main task of the Russian troops. The strategy was also influenced by the population of Ancient Rus', especially when repelling the raids of nomads. Under pressure from the people, the Kyiv princes moved from passive defense of the state's borders to large-scale campaigns, having previously abandoned mutual claims - civil strife. The principle of strategic surprise and the seizure of strategic initiative were widely used.
The tactics of ancient Russian troops were also important in the development of military art. The tactics of the columns of the Slavic tribes, the variety of combat techniques (detours, ambushes), the use of terrain features, and the coordination of actions forced the Byzantines to borrow the tactical forms of armed struggle of the ancient Slavs. During the formation of the Old Russian state, tactics and combat formation changed. The Russian army was a monolithic “wall” that decided the outcome of the battle in hand-to-hand combat, while a reserve was allocated - a second line to guard the rear. In the XI-XII centuries. The battle formation was divided along the front and in depth - the army was divided into three regiments (Listven 1024), and then into two lines of regiments in the battle with the Cumans on the Salnitsa River in 1111 - which increased the maneuverability of the army. There is an uneven distribution of forces in the battle formation, which made it possible to fight to encircle the enemy: in the battle on the Koloksha River near Suzdal in 1096, the Novgorodians reinforced one of the flanks with two infantry detachments standing one behind the other, and behind them they placed a detachment of cavalry intended for coverage of the enemy's rear (7). In campaigns against the Polovtsy, a strong vanguard was created. He delivered an unexpected blow to the enemy's advanced units, seized the initiative and thereby ensured moral superiority. The organization of interaction between infantry and cavalry on the battlefield is noteworthy, with the infantry and militia playing a decisive role in the outcome of the battles. In contrast to Western European military art, the tactics of Russian troops were based on close interaction between military branches.
The high achievements of military art can be judged not only by the campaigns and battles themselves, but also by chronicle sources created in Ancient Rus'. Such monuments include “The Tale of Bygone Years”, “Russian Truth”, “Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh”, and monuments of folklore.
“The Tale of Bygone Years” is the first monument to Russian military thought, a unique military history of Russian antiquity. Its authors not only outlined the course of events, but also analyzed them. The chronicle was a summary of the events of the civil history of Ancient Rus'; it also summarized the extensive military experience that the Russian people accumulated in the 10th-12th centuries.
Another monument to military thought of the 10th-11th centuries are the lives of prince-commanders. The first life known to us is “The Legend of Svyatoslav.” This is a story about his campaigns and a revelation of his military leadership based on the stories of direct participants in Svyatoslav’s campaigns. The image of the warrior prince, according to the author of the “Tale,” was supposed to be an example on which warriors of subsequent generations would be raised.
In some historical monuments an attempt was made to broadly generalize the military art of that time. Among the latter are the “Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh” (8) - a unique set of military thoughts and instructions on military affairs.
All of the listed monuments of written literature expressed not only the ideas of the prince-voivodes, but the thoughts and moods inherent in the entire army, right down to its lower ranks: the lower-level governors and ordinary soldiers.

Literature:
1. Materials on the history of the USSR. M., 1985, Issue 1. P.228.
2. Klibanov. The order of battle among the ancient Slavs. Military History Magazine, 1945. No. 1-2. P.78.
3. Procopius from Caesarea. War with the Goths. M., 1950. P.209-210.
4. Materials on the history of the USSR. P.261.
5. Grekov B.D. Kievan Rus. M., 1953. P.329-330.
6. Vasilievsky V.G. Varangian-Russian and Varangian-English squad in Constantinople in the 11th-12th centuries. - Journal of the Ministry of Public Education. 1875, March (No. 3). P.91.
7. The Tale of Bygone Years. M.-L. Part 1. P.370-372.
8. Ibid. P.354-359.

IN Roman Lake. Repeatedly in direct clashes with the Byzantines, the Slavic troops won victories. In particular, in 551, the Slavs defeated the Byzantine cavalry and captured its chief Asbad, which indicates the presence of cavalry among the Slavs, and took the city of Toper, luring its garrison away from the fortress with a false retreat and setting up an ambush. In 597, during the siege of Thessalonica, the Slavs used stone-throwing machines, “turtles,” iron rams and hooks. In the 7th century, the Slavs successfully operated at sea against Byzantium (the siege of Thessaloniki in 610, the landing on Crete in 623, the landing under the walls of Constantinople in 626).

In the next period, associated with the dominance of the Turkic-Bulgarians in the steppes, the Slavs found themselves cut off from the Byzantine borders, but in the 9th century two events took place that immediately chronologically preceded the era of Kievan Rus - the Russian-Byzantine War of 830 and the Russian-Byzantine War of 860. Both expeditions were by sea.

Features of the development of ancient Russian statehood at its early stage (the presence of powerful tribal unions with local princely dynasties and large urban centers with veche self-government, their subordination to the Kyiv prince on a federal basis, the features of the feudal relations that were emerging, the absence of private ownership of land) largely determined the uniqueness of the military organization Ancient Rus'.

Troop organization

9th-11th centuries

With the expansion of influence in the first half of the 9th century Kyiv princes on the tribal unions of the Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Krivichi and Northerners, establishing a collection system (carried out by 100-200 soldiers) and exporting polyudye, the Kyiv princes began to have the means to maintain a large army in constant combat readiness, which was required to fight the nomads. Also, the army could stay under the banner for a long time, making long-term campaigns, which was required to defend the interests of foreign trade in the Black and Caspian Seas.

The most numerous part of the army was the militia - the warriors. At the turn of the 10th century, the militia was tribal. Archaeological data indicate a stratification of property among the Eastern Slavs at the turn of the 8th - 9th centuries and the emergence of thousands of mansions of the local nobility, while tribute was calculated in proportion to the households, regardless of the wealth of the owners (however, according to one version of the origin of the boyars, the local nobility was prototype of the senior squad). From the middle of the 9th century, when Princess Olga organized the collection of tribute in the Russian North through a system of churchyards (later we see the Kyiv governor in Novgorod, transporting 2/3 of the Novgorod tributes to Kyiv), tribal militias lost their importance.

Recruits of warriors at the beginning of the reign of Svyatoslav Igorevich or when Vladimir Svyatoslavich formed the garrisons of the fortresses he built on the border with the steppe are of a one-time nature; there is no information that this service had any duration or that the warrior had to report for service with any equipment .

In the wars of Ancient Rus', mercenary troops took a certain part. Initially they were Varangians, which is associated with friendly relations between Russia and Scandinavia. They participated not only as mercenaries. Varangians are also found among the closest associates of the first Kyiv princes. In some campaigns of the 10th century, Russian princes hired Pechenegs and Hungarians. Later, during the period of feudal fragmentation, mercenaries also often took part in internecine wars. Among the peoples who were among the mercenaries, in addition to the Varangians and Pechenegs, there were Cumans, Hungarians, Western and Southern Slavs, Finno-Ugrians and Balts, Germans and some others. They all armed themselves in their own style.

The total number of troops could be more than 10,000 people.

XII-XIII centuries

Thus, for speed of movement, the army used pack horses instead of a convoy. For battle, the army often dismounted; Leo the Deacon under 971 indicates the unusual performance of the Russian army on horseback.

However, professional cavalry was needed to fight the nomads, so the squad became cavalry. At the same time, the organization took into account the Hungarian and Pecheneg experience. Horse breeding began to develop. The development of cavalry occurred faster in the south of Rus' than in the north, due to differences in the nature of the terrain and opponents. In 1021, Yaroslav the Wise and his army traveled from Kyiv to the Sudomir River, where they defeated Bryachislav of Polotsk, in a week, that is, the average speed was 110-115 km. per day. In the 11th century, cavalry was compared in importance to infantry, and later surpassed it. At the same time, horse archers stood out; in addition to bows and arrows, they used axes, possibly spears, shields and helmets.

Horses were important not only for war, but also for the economy, so they were bred in the owner’s villages. They were also kept on princely farms: there are known cases when princes gave horses to militias during the war. The example of the Kyiv uprising of 1068 shows that the city militia was also mounted.

Throughout the pre-Mongol period, infantry played a role in all military operations. She not only participated in the capture of cities and carried out engineering and transport work, but also covered the rear, made sabotage forays, and also participated in battles along with the cavalry. For example, in the 12th century, mixed battles involving both infantry and cavalry were common near city fortifications. There was no clear division in weapons, and everyone used what was more convenient for him and what he could afford. Therefore, everyone had several types of weapons. However, depending on this, the tasks they performed varied. Thus, in the infantry, as in the cavalry, one can distinguish heavily armed spearmen, in addition to the spear, armed with sulits, a battle axe, a mace, a shield, sometimes with a sword and armor, and lightly armed archers, equipped with a bow and arrows, a battle ax or an iron mace, and, obviously without defensive weapons.

Armament

Two ancient Russian warriors, drawing by a modern artist.

Offensive

Protective

If the early Slavs, according to the Greeks, did not have armor, then the spread of chain mail dates back to the 8th-9th centuries. They were made from rings made of iron wire, which reached 7-9 and 13-14 mm in diameter, and 1.5 - 2 mm in thickness. Half of the rings were welded, and the other half was riveted during weaving (1 to 4). In total, there were at least 20,000 of them. Later, there were chain mail with copper rings woven in for decoration. The ring size is reduced to 6-8 and 10-13 mm. There were also weavings where all the rings were riveted together. Old Russian chain mail, on average, was 60-70 cm in length, about 50 cm or more in width (at the waist), with short sleeves of about 25 cm and a split collar. At the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th century, chain mail made of flat rings appeared - their diameter is 13-16 mm with a wire width of 2-4 mm and a thickness of 0.6-0.8 mm. These rings were flattened using a stamp. This shape increased the coverage area with the same weight of armor. In the 13th century, a pan-European heavier armor took place, and knee-length chain mail appeared in Rus'. However, chain mail weaving was also used for other purposes - around the same time, chain mail stockings (nagavitsy) appeared. And most helmets were equipped with aventail. Chain mail in Rus' was very common and was used not only by the squad, but also by humble warriors.

In addition to chain mail, lamellar armor was used. Their appearance dates back to the 9th-10th centuries. Such armor was made from iron plates of a close to rectangular shape, with several holes along the edges. Through these holes, all the plates were connected with straps. On average, the length of each plate was 8-10 cm, and the width was 1.5-3.5 cm. More than 500 of them were needed for the armor. The lamellar had the appearance of a hip-length shirt, with a hem that widened downwards, sometimes with sleeves. According to archeology, in the 9th-13th centuries there was 1 lamellar for every 4 pieces of chain mail, while in the north (especially in Novgorod, Pskov, Minsk) plate armor was more common. And later they even supplant chain mail. There is also information about their export. Scale armor was also used, which were plates measuring 6 by 4-6 cm, attached at the top edge to a leather or fabric base. There were also brigantines. To protect hands, folding bracers have been used since the late 12th and early 13th centuries. And at the end of the 13th century, early mirrors appeared - round plaques worn over armor.

The main type of Russian throwing machines were not easel crossbows, but various lever sling machines. The simplest type is the paterella, which threw stones attached to the long arm of a lever when people pulled on the other arm. For kernels of 2 - 3 kg, 8 people were enough, and for kernels of several tens of kilograms - up to 100 or more. A more advanced and widespread machine was the manjanik, which was called a vice in Rus'. Instead of traction created by people, they used a movable counterweight. All these machines were short-lived; their repair and production were supervised by “vicious” craftsmen. Firearms appeared at the end of the 14th century, but siege engines still retained military importance until the 15th century.

Notes

Literature

• Kainov S. Yu. Old Russian warrior of the first half of the 10th century. Reconstruction experience // Military collection. Almanac of Russian military history. - M., 2004. - P. 6-11.
• Nesterov F. F.“The Link of Times” (rec. DIN, prof. Kargalov V.V.) - M.: Young Guard, 1984.
• Presnyakov A. E. Princely law in Ancient Rus'. Lectures on Russian history. Kievan Rus. - M.: Nauka, 1993.
• Razin E. A. History of military art
• Rybakov B. A. Birth of Rus'
• Fedorov O. V. Artistic reconstructions of costumes and weapons of warriors of Ancient Rus'

Any settlement has borders that must be protected from enemy invasions; this need has always existed for large Slavic settlements. During the period of Ancient Rus', conflicts tore the country apart; it was necessary to fight not only with external threats, but also with fellow tribesmen. Unity and agreement between the princes helped create a great state that became defensible. Old Russian warriors stood under one banner and showed the whole world their strength and courage.

Druzhina

The Slavs were a peace-loving people, so the ancient Russian warriors did not stand out too much from the background of ordinary peasants. They defended their home with spears, axes, knives and clubs. Military equipment, weapons appear gradually, and they are to a greater extent focused on protecting its owner rather than attacking. In the 10th century, several Slavic tribes united around the Prince of Kyiv, who collected taxes and protected the territory under his control from the invasion of the steppes, Swedes, Byzantines, and Mongols. A squad is formed, 30% of which consists of professional military men (often mercenaries: Varangians, Pechenegs, Germans, Hungarians) and militias (voi). During this period, the weapons of the ancient Russian warrior consisted of a club, a spear, and a sword. Lightweight protection does not restrict movement and ensures mobility in battle and on the march. The main force was infantry, horses were used as pack animals and for delivering soldiers to battlefields. The cavalry is formed after unsuccessful clashes with the steppe people, who were excellent riders.

Protection

Old Russian wars wore shirts and ports, common for the population of Rus' in the 5th - 6th centuries, and put on bast shoes. During the Russian-Byzantine war, the enemy was amazed by the courage and bravery of the “Rus”, who fought without protective armor, covering themselves with shields and using them at the same time as weapons. Later, the “kuyak” appeared, which was essentially a sleeveless shirt, it was trimmed with plates from horse hooves or pieces of leather. Later, metal plates began to be used to protect the body from slashing blows and enemy arrows.

Shield

The armor of the ancient Russian warrior was light, which ensured high maneuverability, but at the same time reduced the degree of protection. Large ones, human-sized, have been used by Slavic peoples since ancient times. They covered the warrior's head, so in the upper part they had a hole for the eyes. Since the 10th century, shields have been made in a round shape, they are covered with iron, covered with leather and decorated with various family symbols. According to the testimony of Byzantine historians, the Russians created a wall of shields that tightly closed with each other, and put spears forward. This tactic did not allow the advanced units of the enemy to break through to the rear of the Russian troops. After 100 years, the uniform is adapted to a new type of army - cavalry. The shields become almond-shaped and have two mounts designed to be held in battle and on the march. With this type of equipment, ancient Russian warriors went on campaigns and defended their own lands before the invention of firearms. Many traditions and legends are associated with shields. Some of them are still “winged” to this day. Fallen and wounded soldiers were brought home on shields; when fleeing, the retreating regiments threw them under the feet of the pursuers' horses. Prince Oleg hangs a shield on the gates of the defeated Constantinople.

Helmets

Until the 9th - 10th centuries, Old Russian warriors wore ordinary hats on their heads, which did not protect them from the chopping blows of the enemy. The first helmets found by archaeologists were made according to the Norman type, but they were not widely used in Rus'. The conical shape has become more practical and therefore widely used. In this case, the helmet was riveted from four metal plates, they were decorated precious stones and feathers (from noble warriors or governors). This shape allowed the sword to slip without causing much harm to the person; a balaclava made of leather or felt softened the blow. The helmet was changed due to additional protective devices: aventail (chain mail mesh), nasal (metal plate). The use of protection in the form of masks (faces) was rare in Rus'; most often these were captured helmets, which were widely used in European countries. The description of the ancient Russian warrior, preserved in the chronicles, suggests that they did not hide their faces, but could fetter the enemy with a menacing gaze. Helmets with a half mask were made for noble and wealthy warriors; they were characterized by decorative details that did not have a protective function.

Chain mail

The most famous part of the vestment of the ancient Russian warrior, according to archaeological excavations, appears in the 7th - 8th centuries. Chain mail is a shirt made of metal rings tightly connected to each other. At this time, it was quite difficult for craftsmen to make such protection; the work was delicate and took a long period of time. The metal was rolled into wire, from which rings were rolled and welded, fastened to each other according to a 1 to 4 pattern. At least 20 - 25 thousand rings were spent on creating one chain mail, the weight of which ranged from 6 to 16 kilograms. Copper links were woven into the fabric for decoration. In the 12th century, stamping technology was used, when woven rings were flattened, which provided a larger area of ​​protection. During the same period, chain mail became longer, additional elements of armor appeared: nagovitsa (iron, wicker stockings), aventail (mesh to protect the neck), bracers (metal gloves). Quilted clothing was worn under the chain mail to soften the force of the blow. At the same time, they were used in Rus'. Manufacturing required a base (shirt) made of leather, onto which thin iron slats were tightly attached. Their length was 6 - 9 centimeters, width from 1 to 3. Lamellar armor gradually replaced chain mail and was even sold to other countries. In Rus', scale, lamellar and chain mail armor were often combined. Yushman, bakhterets were essentially chain mail, which, to increase protective properties were equipped with plates on the chest. At the beginning of the 14th century appears the new kind armor - mirrors. Large metal plates, polished to a shine, were usually worn over chain mail. They were connected on the sides and shoulders with leather straps and were often decorated with various kinds of symbols.

Weapon

The protective clothing of the ancient Russian warrior was not impenetrable armor, but was distinguished by its lightness, which ensured greater maneuverability of warriors and shooters in battle conditions. According to information obtained from historical sources of the Byzantines, the “Rusichi” were distinguished by enormous physical strength. In the 5th - 6th centuries, the weapons of our ancestors were quite primitive, used for close combat. To cause significant damage to the enemy, it had a lot of weight and was additionally equipped with damaging elements. The evolution of weapons took place against the backdrop of technological progress and changes in combat strategy. Throwing systems, siege engines, piercing and cutting iron tools were used for many centuries, and their design was constantly improved. Some innovations were adopted from other nations, but Russian inventors and gunsmiths have always been distinguished by the originality of their approach and the reliability of the manufactured systems.

Percussion

Weapons for close combat are known to all nations; at the dawn of the development of civilization, its main type was the club. This is a heavy club that is wrapped in iron at the end. Some options include metal spikes or nails. Most often in Russian chronicles, a flail is mentioned along with a club. Due to their ease of manufacture and effectiveness in battle, impact weapons were widely used. The sword and saber are partially replacing it, but militias and warriors continue to use it in battle. Historians have created based on chronicle sources and excavation data, a typical portrait of a man who was called an ancient Russian warrior. Photographs of reconstructions, as well as images of heroes that have survived to this day, necessarily contain some type of impact weapon, most often the legendary mace acts in this capacity.

Slashing, piercing

In the history of ancient Rus' great value has a sword. It is not only the main type of weapon, but also a symbol of princely power. The knives used were of several types; they were named according to the place where they were worn: boot knives, belt knives, side knives. They were used along with the sword and the ancient Russian warrior changed in the 10th century, the sword was replaced by a saber. Her combat characteristics The Russians appreciated it in battles with nomads, from whom they borrowed the uniform. Spears and spears are among the most ancient types of piercing weapons, which were successfully used by warriors as defensive and offensive weapons. When used in parallel, they evolved ambiguously. Rogatins are gradually being replaced by spears, which are being improved into sulitsa. Not only peasants (warriors and militias), but also the princely squad fought with axes. For mounted warriors, this type of weapon had a short handle, while infantrymen (warriors) used axes on long shafts. Berdysh (an ax with a wide blade) became a weapon in the 13th - 14th centuries. Later it was transformed into a halberd.

Strelkovoe

All means used daily in hunting and in everyday life were used by Russian soldiers as military weapons. Bows were made from animal horns and suitable types of wood (birch, juniper). Some of them were more than two meters long. To store arrows, they used a shoulder quiver, which was made of leather, sometimes decorated with brocade, precious and semi-precious stones. To make arrows, reeds, birch, reeds, and apple trees were used, with an iron tip attached to the splinter. In the 10th century, the design of the bow was quite complex, and the process of its manufacture was labor-intensive. Crossbows were a more effective type. Their disadvantage was their lower rate of fire, but the bolt (used as a projectile) caused more damage to the enemy, piercing armor when hit. It was difficult to pull the bowstring of a crossbow; even strong warriors rested their feet on the butt to do this. In the 12th century, to speed up and facilitate this process, they began to use a hook, which archers wore on their belts. Before the invention of firearms, bows were used by Russian troops.

Equipment

Foreigners who visited Russian cities of the 12th - 13th centuries were surprised at how equipped the soldiers were. Despite the apparent cumbersomeness of the armor (especially on heavy horsemen), the horsemen coped with several tasks quite easily. Sitting in the saddle, the warrior could hold the reins (drive the horse), shoot from a bow or crossbow, and prepare a heavy sword for close combat. The cavalry was a maneuverable striking force, so the equipment of the rider and horse had to be light but durable. The chest, croup and sides of the war horse were covered with special covers, which were made of fabric with iron plates sewn on. The equipment of the ancient Russian warrior was thought out to the smallest detail. Saddles made of wood allowed the archer to turn around reverse side and shoot at full speed, while controlling the direction of the horse's movement. Unlike European warriors of that time, who were completely encased in armor, the light armor of the Russians was focused on fighting with nomads. Noble nobles, princes, and kings had combat and ceremonial weapons and armor, which were richly decorated and equipped with state symbols. Foreign ambassadors were received there and went on holidays.

Mikhail Savinov

MILITARY AFFAIRS OF ANCIENT Rus' IX–XI centuries

Russian troops on the march and in battle

The author expresses sincere gratitude for the great assistance in selecting illustrations for this book to the leaders and participants of the historical reconstruction clubs of the early Middle Ages D. Belsky, S. Kashin-Sveshnikov, I. Ponomarev, V. Ostromentsky, E. Alekseev, I. Kulagin, S. Mishanin , wonderful masters V. Sukhov, V. Kachaev, A. Budilov, P. Zhigulin and A. Shtyrova, photographers M. Bagaev, E. Nesvitaylo, I. Kurilov, D. Tikhomirov, A. Lovchikov, A. Kopatchinsky and A. Sheet!

AT THE SOURCES

Why do we need history?

Every science has fundamental problems and practical application. Chain Reaction Study - theoretical problem, and the practical implementation of this problem can be different - here is a nuclear power plant, and an atomic bomb. There are such connections between problems and practice in both biology and chemistry.

It is clear that if a physicist, chemist or biologist solves complex theoretical questions, it means that sooner or later the solution to these questions will be translated into purely practical result. But where is this result from historical research? For example, who will live better if the author of these lines, who is engaged in textual criticism of Russian chronographs of the 17th century, opens a new edition, or a list, or even a new such chronograph?

The first answer, which seems to lie on the surface, is that history makes it possible to foresee the future, predict events based on the experience of mankind. At the same time, it is well known that history teaches no one anything, and similar situations are repeated over and over again, only on a larger scale and with great suffering.

Is there a second answer? Eat. This answer lies in the very practice of studying the past. History is a wonderful gymnastics for the mind.

It is not for nothing that history has its own patron muse, Clio, and it is not for nothing that the ancients considered history to be a relative of the fine arts. Music or drawing lessons will not necessarily make a musician, composer or artist out of a person, but they can develop his taste, teach him to hear and see the world differently - and this world will sparkle with new colors - will make his fingers free and give him the joy of mastering a brush, pencil or musical instrument.

In the same way, history teaches an inquisitive admirer to be attentive to any evidence from a source, teaches him to understand the actions, feelings and thoughts of people of the past, to hear their living speech in chronicles and sagas. History provides new opportunities to understand the human world.

There is a third answer to our main question, and this answer is no longer important for a specific person, but for the entire people, nation, country. A common historical memory unites a people and ensures its survival among other peoples much better than, for example, an artificially invented national idea.

The national idea is abstract. You can not accept it, you can argue with it. But there is another thing around which the nation rallies into a single whole without any abstract idea. This is the memory of the military exploits of our ancestors, the memory of the victories of the defenders of the Motherland.

People have always sought to determine their place in the world precisely with the help of their history. This task is served by myth - it explains the origin of the people and their position on the World Tree - and the epic, which preserves the memory of the heroes of the people, of the people who gave their lives for its prosperity. We also have such an epic - these are Russian heroic epics, which we will definitely turn to in the course of our story about the military affairs of Rus'.

So, our goal is to take a closer look at the origins of the military affairs of Rus' - that Rus' that managed to overcome all the difficult trials, all the invasions of the invaders, the Rus' whose history continues today. Our ancestors had to absorb the military science of a variety of peoples. We will see how Rus' learned to fight at the dawn of its history - in the 9th–11th centuries.

V. D. Polenov. Portrait of epic storyteller Nikita Bogdanov. From the words of such storytellers who lived in the Urals and the Russian North, scientists recorded epics throughout the 19th and first half of the 20th centuries. Nowadays, the living tradition of performing heroic songs has almost disappeared.

In the modern pronunciation of the word “Slavs,” the stem “slava” is clearly heard, and it seems that it is from this word that the common name of Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Serbs and Croats comes... But in fact this is not so.

The ancient ancestors of the Slavic peoples called themselves “Slovene” - from “word”. Slovenes - those who speak the word can understand each other. Strangers speak incomprehensibly.

Many self-names of peoples all over the earth are translated exactly like this - “those who speak.” Language for ancient man is the first and main principle to separate friends and foes.

The Slavs, like most peoples of Europe, belong to the Indo-European language family. The languages ​​of this family are also spoken by Armenians, Iranians, Tajiks and many peoples of India.

All these peoples have common ancestors - the ancient Indo-Europeans. Scientists are still arguing about the exact location of the ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans. We will not delve into either the debate about the Indo-Europeans or the debate about the origin of the Slavs, but will limit ourselves only to those facts that are known for sure.

Fact one: such ancestral homelands in the Ill-II millennia BC. e. There were most likely several. Most European peoples settled across the continent from the area of ​​modern Central Europe, moving in several waves.

Fact two. The Slavs represented the last wave of Indo-Europeans to appear in Europe, and this appearance can reliably be attributed to the fifth century AD. Not earlier.

Of course, the Slavs did not appear in Europe out of nowhere, but the history of their entry into the historical arena is too vague and controversial. Data from written sources are fragmentary - after all ancient history The history of the Slavs began on the very periphery of the Greco-Roman world, so the records of ancient authors about the Slavs are brief and often fantastic. And yet the first people who wrote something about the Slavs were the Romans.

The Laurentian Chronicle, which preserved one of the editions of the Tale of Bygone Years, the sacred book of our history, the main source telling about the birth of Rus'.

First centuries AD. Rome at the zenith of glory. The Romans rule the world.

Outside the mighty and enlightened empire, barbarian tribes swarm. Since they can pose a serious threat, the Romans try to collect and process information about them. The Romans know the Germans best; Latin authors have a relatively good understanding of the Black Sea tribes that replaced the famous Scythians. But the inhabitants of the forest wilds of the Middle and of Eastern Europe, including our distant ancestors, are much less well known to the writers of the empire. However, the Romans are not afraid of this paucity of knowledge, and they still write about these lands, sometimes not stopping at obvious fantasy...

The most ancient people of ancient sources, which can somehow be compared with the Slavs, are the Wends. For example, Roman historians of the 1st century write about them. AD Pliny and Tacitus, placing the region inhabited by the Wends somewhere in the Vistula (Vistula) river basin. But the Slavicity of the Wends can neither be proven nor disproved.

Let's see if archeology tells us something. She studies evidence of the life of ancient peoples preserved in the earth: settlements, ancient cemeteries, burial grounds, treasures.

Archeology gives us a lot. We see the life and customs of the people who once lived on earth, we can imagine how these people dressed, what they ate, what they believed. We can understand how this people differed from their neighbors, and how, on the contrary, they were similar to them. We can identify areas of settlement of related tribes, we can learn a lot about their contacts with neighbors and more distant countries - for example, the Roman Empire. The Roman coin in the burial of a barbarian will help us date our entire archaeological culture - a set of monuments left by one ancient people or a group of closely related peoples.

But not a single burial will contain a sign with the inscription for descendants: “We are Slavs!” or “We are Germans!” The Germanic or Slavic origins of those buried can be established by their belongings or by the burial rite. For the era of Ancient Rus', such differences are well known - a Scandinavian burial is difficult to confuse with a Slavic one, and the burial of a Finn will differ from both. But in the first centuries of our era, things were much more complicated.

Meanwhile, the Wends of Tacitus belong to these first centuries - possible ancient Slavs. Therefore, scientists really wanted to find an archaeological culture in this era that could be confidently associated with the Slavs.