Politics during the years of perestroika in the USSR. Who benefited from perestroika in the USSR?

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Perestroika in the USSR of 1985-1991 was a massive change in the economic, political, and ideological life of the country, achieved through the introduction of radically new reforms. The goal of the reforms was the complete democratization of the political, social and economic system that developed in the Soviet Union. Today we will take a closer look at the history of Perestroika in the USSR of 1985-1991.

Stages

The main stages of Perestroika in the USSR 1985-1991:

March 1985 - early 1987 The slogans of this stage were the phrases: “acceleration” and “more socialism.”
1987-1988 At this stage, new slogans appeared: “glasnost” and “more democracy.”
1989-1990 The stage of “confusion and vacillation”. The formerly united camp of perestroika split. Political and national confrontation began to gain momentum.
1990-1991 This period was marked by the collapse of socialism, the political bankruptcy of the CPSU and, as a consequence, the collapse Soviet Union.

Reasons for perestroika in the USSR

The beginning of major reforms in the Soviet Union, as a rule, is associated with the coming to power of M. S. Gorbachev. At the same time, some experts consider one of his predecessors, Yu. A. Andropov, to be the “father of Perestroika”. There is also an opinion that from 1983 to 1985, Perestroika experienced an “embryonic period” while the USSR entered the stage of reform. One way or another, due to the lack of economic incentives to work, a ruinous arms race, huge expenses for military operations in Afghanistan, and a growing lag behind the West in the field of science and technology, at the dawn of the 1990s the Soviet Union was in need of large-scale reform. The gap between the government's slogans and the real situation was huge. Distrust of communist ideology grew in society. All these facts became the reasons for Perestroika in the USSR.

The beginning of change

In March 1985, M. S. Gorbachev was elected to the post of General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee. The following month, the new leadership of the USSR proclaimed a course for the accelerated development of the country in social and economic sphere. This is where the real Perestroika began. “Glasnost” and “acceleration” will eventually become its main symbols. In society, one could increasingly hear slogans like: “we are waiting for changes.” Gorbachev also understood that changes were urgently needed by the state. Since the time of Khrushchev, he was the first General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee who did not disdain communicating with ordinary people. Traveling around the country, he went out to people to ask about their problems.

Working to implement the set course for the development and implementation of the reforms of Perestroika in the USSR of 1985-1991, the country's leadership came to the conclusion that sectors of the economy needed to be transferred to new ways of managing. From 1986 to 1989 laws were gradually passed state enterprises, individual labor, cooperatives, as well as labor conflicts. The latter law provided for the right of workers to strike. As part of economic reforms, the following were introduced: state acceptance of products, economic accounting and self-financing, as well as the appointment of directors of enterprises based on the results of elections.

It is worth recognizing that all of these measures not only did not lead to the main goal of Perestroika in the USSR of 1985-1991 - positive improvements in the economic situation of the country, but also worsened the situation. The reason for this was: the “crudeness” of the reforms, significant budget expenditure, as well as an increase in the amount of money in the hands of the ordinary population. Due to government deliveries of products, communications established between enterprises were disrupted. The shortage of consumer goods has worsened.

"Publicity"

From an economic point of view, Perestroika began with “acceleration of development.” In the spiritual and political life its main leitmotif was the so-called “glasnost”. Gorbachev said that democracy is impossible without “glasnost.” By this he meant that the people should know about all state events of the past and processes of the present. The ideas of replacing “barracks socialism” with socialism with a “human face” began to appear in journalism and statements of party ideologists. During the years of Perestroika in the USSR (1985-1991), culture began to “come to life.” The authorities have changed their attitude towards dissidents. Camps for political prisoners gradually began to close.

The policy of “glasnost” gained special momentum in 1987. The legacy of the writers of the 30-50s and the works of domestic philosophers returned to the Soviet reader. The repertoire of theater and cinematographers has expanded significantly. The processes of “glasnost” found expression in magazine and newspaper publications, as well as on television. The weekly “Moscow News” and the magazine “Ogonyok” were very popular.

Political changes

The policy of Perestroika in the USSR of 1985-1991 assumed the emancipation of society, as well as its deliverance from party tutelage. As a result, the need for political reforms was put on the agenda. Major events steel in the internal political life of the USSR: approval of the reform political system, adoption of amendments to the constitution and adoption of the law on elections of deputies. These decisions became a step towards organizing an alternative electoral system. The Congress became the highest legislative body people's deputies. He nominated his representatives to the Supreme Council.

In the spring of 1989, elections of members of the Congress of People's Deputies took place. The legal opposition was included in the congress. It was headed by: the world-famous scientist and human rights activist academician A. Sakharov, the former secretary of the Moscow city party committee B. Yeltsin and the economist G. Popov. The spread of “glasnost” and pluralism of opinions led to the creation of numerous associations, some of which were national.

Foreign policy

During the years of Perestroika, the course of the foreign policy of the Soviet Union radically changed. The government abandoned confrontation in relations with the West, stopped interfering in local conflicts and reconsidered its relations with the countries of the socialist camp. The new vector of foreign policy development was based not on the “class approach”, but on universal human values. According to Gorbachev, relations between states should have been based on maintaining a balance of national interests, freedom to choose development paths in each individual state, and the collective responsibility of countries for resolving global issues.

Gorbachev was the initiator of the creation of a pan-European home. He regularly met with the rulers of America: Reagan (until 1988) and Bush (since 1989). At these meetings, politicians discussed disarmament issues. Soviet-American relations were “unfrozen.” In 1987, agreements were signed on the destruction of missiles and missile defense. In 1990, politicians signed an agreement to reduce the number of strategic weapons.

During the years of Perestroika, Gorbachev was able to establish trusting relationships with the heads of leading European states: Germany (G. Kohl), Great Britain (M. Thatcher) and France (F. Mitterrand). In 1990, participants in the Security Conference of Europe signed an agreement to reduce the number of conventional weapons in Europe. The USSR began to withdraw its soldiers from Afghanistan and Mongolia. During 1990-1991, both the political and military structures of the Warsaw Pact were dissolved. The military bloc essentially ceased to exist. The policy of “new thinking” brought fundamental changes to international relations. This was the end cold war.

National movements and political struggle

In the Soviet Union, as a multinational state, there have always been national contradictions. They gained particular momentum in conditions of crises (political or economic) and radical changes. While building socialism, the authorities paid little attention to the historical characteristics of the peoples. Having announced the formation of the Soviet community, the government actually began to destroy the traditional economy and life of many peoples of the state. The authorities exerted particularly strong pressure on Buddhism, Islam and shamanism. Among the peoples of Western Ukraine, Moldova and the Baltic states, who joined the USSR on the eve of the Second World War, anti-socialist and anti-Soviet sentiments were very widespread.

The peoples deported during the war were greatly offended by the Soviet regime: Chechens, Crimean Tatars, Ingush, Karachais, Kalmyks, Balkars, Meskhetian Turks and others. During Perestroika in the USSR of 1985-1991, the country had historical conflicts between Georgia and Abkhazia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, Georgia and Armenia, and others.

The Glasnost policy gave the green light for the creation of nationalist and ethnic social movements. The most significant of them were: the “Popular Fronts” of the Baltic countries, the Armenian Karabakh Committee, the Ukrainian “Rukh” and the Russian community “Memory”. The broad masses were attracted to the opposition movement.

The strengthening of national movements, as well as opposition to the Union Center and the power of the Communist Party, became the determining factor in the crisis of the “tops”. Back in 1988, tragic events unfolded in Nagorno-Karabakh. For the first time since civil war Demonstrations took place under nationalist slogans. Following them, pogroms occurred in Azerbaijani Sumgait and Uzbek Fergana. The apogee of national discontent was the armed clashes in Karabakh.

In November 1988, the Supreme Council of Estonia proclaimed the supremacy of republican law over the national law. The following year, the Verkhovna Rada of Azerbaijan proclaimed the sovereignty of its republic, and the Armenian Social Movement began to advocate for the independence of Armenia and its separation from the Soviet Union. At the end of 1989, the Communist Party of Lithuania declared its independence.

Elections of 1990

During the 1990 election campaign, the confrontation between the party apparatus and opposition forces was pronounced. The opposition received the Democratic Russia electoral bloc, which became nothing more than an organizational center for it, and later turned into a social movement. In February 1990, many rallies took place, the participants of which sought to eliminate the Communist Party's monopoly on power.

The parliamentary elections in Ukraine, Belarus and the RSFSR became the first truly democratic elections. About 30% of positions in the highest legislative bodies were given to deputies with democratic orientation. These elections became an excellent illustration of the crisis in the power of the party elite. The society demanded the abolition of Article 6 of the Constitution of the Soviet Union, which proclaimed the supremacy of the CPSU. This is how a multi-party system began to form in the USSR. The main reformers - B. Yeltsin and G. Popov, received high positions. Yeltsin became chairman Supreme Council, and Popov is the mayor of Moscow.

The beginning of the collapse of the USSR

M. S. Gorbachev and Perestroika in the USSR of 1985-1991 are associated by many with the collapse of the Soviet Union. It all started in 1990, when national movements began to gain more and more momentum. In January, as a result of the Armenian pogroms, troops were brought into Baku. Military operation, accompanied big amount victims, only temporarily distracted the public from the issue of Azerbaijan’s independence. Around the same time, Lithuanian parliamentarians voted for the independence of the republic, as a result of which Vilnius entered Soviet troops. Following Lithuania, a similar decision was made by the parliaments of Latvia and Estonia. In the summer of 1990, the Supreme Council of Russia and the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine adopted declarations of sovereignty. The following spring, independence referendums were held in Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Georgia.

Autumn 1990. M. S. Gorbachev, who was elected president of the USSR at the Congress of People's Deputies, was forced to reorganize government bodies. Since then executive bodies were directly subordinate to the president. The Federation Council was established - a new advisory body, which included the heads of the union republics. Then the development and discussion of a new Union Treaty began, regulating relations between the republics of the USSR.

In March 1991, the first referendum in the history of the USSR took place, in which citizens of countries had to speak out regarding the preservation of the Soviet Union as a federation of sovereign republics. Six of the 15 union republics (Armenia, Moldova, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia and Georgia) refused to take part in the referendum. 76% of respondents voted for preserving the USSR. At the same time, an All-Russian referendum was organized, as a result of which the post of president of the republic was introduced.

Russian presidential elections

On June 12, 1991, popular elections were held for the first president in Russian history. According to the voting results, this honorary post went to B. N. Yeltsin, who was supported by 57% of voters. So Moscow became the capital of two presidents: Russian and all-Union. Coordinating the positions of the two leaders was problematic, especially given the fact that their relations were far from the smoothest.

August putsch

By the end of the summer of 1991, the political situation in the country had greatly worsened. On August 20, after heated discussions, the leadership of nine republics agreed to sign an updated Union Treaty, which, in essence, meant a transition to a real federal state. A number of government structures of the USSR were eliminated or replaced with new ones.

The party and state leadership, believing that only decisive measures would lead to the preservation of the political positions of the Communist Party and stopping the collapse of the USSR, resorted to forceful methods of control. On the night of August 18-19, when the President of the USSR was on vacation in Crimea, they formed the GKChP (State Committee for state of emergency). The newly formed committee declared a state of emergency in some areas of the country; announced the disbandment of power structures that violate the 1977 Constitution; interfered with the activities of opposition structures; banned meetings, demonstrations and rallies; took tight control of the media; and finally sent troops into Moscow. A.I. Lukyanov, Chairman of the Supreme Council of the Soviet Union, supported the State Emergency Committee, although he himself was not a member of it.

B. Yeltsin, together with the Russian leadership, led the resistance to the CGPP. In their appeal to the people, they called on them not to obey the illegal decisions of the committee, interpreting its actions as nothing other than an anti-constitutional coup. Yeltsin was supported by more than 70% of Muscovites, as well as residents of a number of other regions. Tens of thousands of peaceful Russians, expressing support for Yeltsin, were ready to take up arms in defense of the Kremlin. Fearing the outbreak of a civil war, the State Emergency Committee, after three days of confrontation, began to withdraw troops from the capital. On August 21, committee members were arrested.

The Russian leadership used the August putsch to defeat the CPSU. Yeltsin issued a decree according to which the party must suspend its activities in Russia. The property of the Communist Party was nationalized and funds were seized. The liberals who came to power in the central part of the country took control levers from the leadership of the CPSU security forces and the media. Gorbachev's presidency was only formal. The majority of the republics refused to conclude the Union Treaty after the August events. Nobody thought about “glasnost” and “acceleration” of Perestroika. The question of the future fate of the USSR was on the agenda.

Final disintegration

In the last months of 1991, the Soviet Union finally collapsed. The Congress of People's Deputies was dissolved, the Supreme Council was radically reformed, most of the union ministries were liquidated, and instead of the Cabinet of Ministers, an inter-republican economic committee was created. The State Council of the USSR, which included the President of the Soviet Union and the heads of the union republics, became the highest body for managing the internal and foreign policy. The first decision of the State Council was to recognize the independence of the Baltic countries.

On December 1, 1991, a referendum was held in Ukraine. More than 80% of respondents were in favor of state independence. As a result, Ukraine also decided not to sign the Union Treaty.

On December 7-8, 1991, B. N. Yeltsin, L. M. Kravchuk and S. S. Shushkevich met in Belovezhskaya Pushcha. As a result of the negotiations, politicians announced the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the formation of the CIS (Union of Independent States). At first, only Russia, Ukraine and Belarus joined the CIS, but later all states that were previously part of the Soviet Union, except the Baltic states, joined it.

Results of Perestroika in the USSR 1985-1991

Despite the fact that Perestroika ended disastrously, it still brought a number of important changes to the life of the USSR, and then its individual republics.

Positive results of perestroika:

The victims of Stalinism were completely rehabilitated.
Such a concept as freedom of speech and views appeared, and censorship became less strict.
The one-party system was eliminated.
There is now the possibility of unhindered entry/exit into/from the country.
Military service for students undergoing training was cancelled.
Women are no longer put in prison for adultery.
Rock was allowed.
The Cold War formally ended.

Of course, Perestroika in the USSR of 1985-1991 also had Negative consequences.

Here are just the main ones:

The country's gold and foreign exchange reserves decreased by 10 times, which caused hyperinflation.
The country's international debt has at least tripled.
The rate of economic growth of the country fell almost to zero - the state simply froze.

Well, the main negative result of Perestroika in the USSR 1985-1991. - collapse of the USSR.

1. Prerequisites for perestroika

E - early 1990s. - a period of world history that was characterized by major changes in international relations, socio-economic and political development. In capitalist states there was a new economic boom. Against this background, the central event was perestroika in the USSR (1985-1991), which caused many responses and conflicting opinions, both in the Soviet Union and in the West, even during the period of its implementation.

The need to characterize the results of perestroika in the USSR forces us, first of all, to turn to an analysis of the reasons that led to the events that radically changed life in our country.

All researchers agree that by the mid-80s the USSR found itself in a state of deep economic, political and social crisis systems.

M.S. himself Gorbachev, during his February 1991 speech at the Minsk Tractor Plant, spoke about the fact that already in the late 70s - early 80s. it became clear: the situation in the country could only seem normal at first glance; in reality, it was impossible to continue doing business this way. He outlined problems in the economy (lag in economic indicators; overload of the country's economy with heavy industries and an insufficient number of enterprises producing consumer goods; militarized nature of the economy), pointed out the difficulties associated with the need to develop the extraction of natural resources in uninhabited areas, and also mentioned that the country’s leadership was not interested in the opinion of the working class, peasantry, and intelligentsia.

In the speech of the former USSR President M.S. Gorbachev, at a meeting with representatives of US political and public circles in Washington on October 21, 2005, the reasons for perestroika were more clearly outlined. It spoke about the dominance of bureaucracy at all levels of government, which hindered the implementation of urgent changes, about the economy lagging behind in global technological competition and acquiring a wasteful and costly nature. “The rate of economic growth has fallen. Labor productivity was lower than in Western countries: in industry - 3.5 times, in agriculture- 5 times.<…>The quality of products only in the military-industrial complex met the world level.” M.S. Gorbachev also drew attention to the lack of freedom and system generated by Stalinism and rejected at the cultural level, to the fact that the country, richest in both intellectual and natural resources, was unable to provide decent living conditions for its citizens.

Indeed, the reproduction of industrialization that continued in the country on a technical basis, the accumulation of gigantic means of production, the involvement of gigantic material resources in circulation (with inefficient use of capital investments), and the depletion of resources led to a steady deterioration in indicators. For example, the average annual growth rate of national income fell from 9% in the 1950s to 4.4% in the first half of the 1960s and continued to fall into the 1970s. Since the late 50s, the rate of economic growth has been constantly falling and dropped to almost zero by the mid-80s. The general level of prices for goods and services in 1971-1983 increased by no less than 43%, i.e. approximately 3% per year. Since 1979, the production of steel, coal, and cast iron began to fall. Ineffective natural economy required increasing investments. The production of meat, milk, and butter decreased. Other indicators also continuously deteriorated: the material and energy intensity of products increased, jobs were continuously created that were not provided with workers, etc.

It turned out that many gigantic, expensive projects were actually a waste of resources. Thus, in regions where land reclamation was most developed, grain production decreased. The dependence of the most important industries on Western technology has increased. The dystrophy of technology, labor organization, and reproduction was increasing at every point. From October 1983, monthly productivity began to fall. In 1984, for the first time since the war, oil production fell, the export of which provided 60% of hard currency. The low quality of goods blocked the way to world markets.

Having taken upon itself, in contrast to Western society, the burden of organizing almost the entire economy, the Soviet state was obliged to have an apparatus capable of well, or at least acceptable, coordinating the efforts of all subsystems of the economy and the distribution of resources. However, the state system itself began to lose its integrity and implicitly “break up” into many subsystems that follow not general, but their own optimization criteria. A clear expression of this was departmentalism. This well-known defect in the system of sectoral ministries appeared in the USSR already in the 1920s, but with particular force during the period of stagnation. Over time, as S.G. points out. Kara-Murza, the department tends to turn into a closed organism, so that a conflict of interests arises: departments with the state as a whole and departments with other departments. Departmentalism undermined one of the main foundations of the Soviet system, which gave strength to its economy - the nationwide character of property and economy.

For a long time, the management system that existed in the Soviet economy was based on administrative methods of the order type, and, despite the fact that it no longer corresponded to the new conditions of scientific and technological development, it was not possible to break it, although some attempts were made to do this. This system was characterized by the presence of partitions and barriers between departments, organizations, between science, design work, all of this, in turn, was separated from production.

The essence of the administrative management system consisted of three elements: strict administrative and directive tasks, a centralized system of material and technical supply, and strict regulation of the activities of enterprises and organizations.

Management of the economy as a whole, each of its branches and each enterprise, large or small, was carried out primarily by administrative methods with the help, first of all, of targeted directive tasks.

The command-and-order form of management alienated people both from labor itself and from its results, turning public property into almost “nobody’s.” This mechanism, this system was personified by the people implementing it. The bureaucratic apparatus in every possible way supported a system that allowed its ideas to occupy profitable positions, to be “at the top”, regardless of the actual state of affairs in national economy. By the 80s. petty corruption and arbitrariness of officials are expanding: in 1984, the CPSU Central Committee received 74 thousand anonymous letters of complaints.

The deterioration of the country's economic situation had a particularly negative impact on the development of the social sphere. Lag in decision social problems accumulated gradually. At first this was due to the fact that the strength of the series objective reasons it was necessary to redistribute funds in order to develop heavy industry or strengthen the country’s defense or to restore the economy destroyed by the war, etc. But subsequently, the lag in solving social problems turned out to be associated primarily with negative trends in economic development over the past 15 years.

During these years, the country's previous leadership, trying to slow down the deterioration of the economic situation, embarked on a significant redistribution of resources from the social to the production sphere. Funds for social purposes began to be allocated on the so-called “residual principle”. And by the mid-80s, the country took a step back in a number of social indicators compared to 1960-1965.

All these negative socio-economic, political, spiritual processes in the Soviet Union weakened its foreign policy position. The urgent changes could no longer be postponed.

We should not forget that the rest of the world also needed radical changes, since already at that time, according to the remark of M.S. Gorbachev, was characterized by acute bloc confrontation, confrontation in international relations and a dangerous arms race, primarily nuclear; unresolved burning problems of the world community - backwardness, poverty, environmental threat on a global scale; the existence of numerous regional conflicts.

This whole set of internal and external factors objectively dictated the need for change, and the April (1985) Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee headed by M.S. Gorbachev, who became General Secretary on March 11, proclaimed a new strategy - accelerating social economic development countries.

2. Progress of perestroika

March 1985, K.U. died. Chernenko, and the next day, March 11, the Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee elects M.S. as General Secretary. Gorbachev. A month after his election, in April 1985, M.S. Gorbachev convened a plenum of the Central Committee, at which he proclaimed a course for “a radical renewal of Soviet society” and for “accelerating the socio-economic development of the country, improving all aspects of social life.” Everything was supposed to be “accelerated”: the development of means of production, social sphere, the activities of party bodies and scientific and technological progress. On February 8, 1986, speaking to VAZ workers, Gorbachev first used the word perestroika to name his policy.

The announced new policy was received by both the party and society with approval, even enthusiasm, with hopes for long-awaited changes.

The reforms began with personnel renewal at the top of the government. Thus, in the very first years after Gorbachev came to power - in 1985-1986 - serious personnel changes began: A.A. Gromyko was appointed to the post of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Georgia E.A. Shevardnadze became the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, B.N. were elected secretaries of the CPSU Central Committee. Yeltsin and L.N. Zaikov, N.I. Ryzhkov was appointed Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR. By the beginning of 1987, 70% of the Politburo members, 60% of the secretaries of regional party organizations, and 40% of the members of the CPSU Central Committee who received their posts under Brezhnev had been replaced.

The process of personnel renewal at the top of the government was completed in 1988.

Economic concept of activity of M.S. Gorbachev, as noted by R.G. Pihoya, was formulated by him in a report delivered at the All-Union Meeting on Problems of Scientific and Technological Progress, held on June 11-12, 1985. The General Secretary proclaimed the concept of an economic mechanism, which included speeding up scientific and technological progress, reconstructing the domestic mechanical engineering industry, producing new machines and equipment, and using high technologies. Along with this, the idea of decentralizing economic management, expanding the rights of enterprises, introducing economic accounting, and increasing the responsibility and interest of labor collectives was put forward.

In the field of economic policy, the scope of activity for private initiative was gradually expanded. In November 1985, the Law “On Individual labor activity“, according to which private activity was legalized in 30 types of production of goods and services. Private initiative, however, faced bureaucratic obstacles, production difficulties caused by a shortage of material resources, and ideological attitudes of the population that were hostile to “private owners.” Thus, on the one hand, cooperative entrepreneurship developed, and on the other, contradictory legal acts were issued (1986 resolution of the CPSU Central Committee “On measures to strengthen the fight against unearned income”, Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Council “On strengthening the fight against the extraction of unearned income”), which aggravated economic and financial difficulties in the country, which hit the non-state sector hard. Economic and social consequences The fight against unearned income convinced reformers of the need to expand the non-state sector, as a result of which the basis was prepared for truly perestroika decisions in the economic field.

Decentralization of management implied a number of transformations in senior management structures. Thus, in November 1985, the USSR State Agricultural Industry was formed on the basis of six ministries. In April 1989 it was abolished. In August 1986, the USSR Ministry of Construction was “zoned” - four ministries were created on its basis, in charge of construction in different regions of the USSR. In 1989 they were abolished.

An attempt to improve product quality, realized in attempts to apply military-administrative methods in economic management - the introduction of a system of state acceptance of products at industrial enterprises, led to the fact that instead of the consumer, the quality of products began to be controlled by an official. This, in turn, led to an increase in bribery, increased administration and bureaucratization of production.

The direction of government activity related to increasing labor discipline. Started under Yu.V. Andropov, this activity was continued in a somewhat new form - an anti-alcohol campaign (this is due to the fact that by 1980, alcohol consumption per capita in the USSR increased approximately 10.4 times compared to 1950 and amounted to 11.3 liters pure alcohol). In May 1985, a decree of the CPSU Central Committee “On measures to overcome drunkenness and alcoholism, to eradicate moonshine” was issued, and a few days later - a Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR “On strengthening the fight against drunkenness,” which marked the beginning of an anti-alcohol campaign that lasted until 1988. Restrictions were introduced on the sale of alcohol, prices were raised and coupons for the purchase of vodka were introduced, measures were introduced to encourage a sober lifestyle, and penalties for moonshine were increased. In 1985-1986, the results of the anti-alcohol campaign were positive: there was less drunkenness, fewer criminal offenses and administrative offenses caused by alcohol intoxication, industrial and transport injuries sharply decreased, the morale of society became healthier, its negative consequences made themselves felt a little later .

The key activity of the USSR government under the leadership of N.I. Ryzhkov was the intensification of scientific and technological progress. Many of the developments begun in stagnant times were put into practice.

The 1980s saw significant progress in space exploration. In 1986, the Mir orbital station was launched and remained in orbit for more than 15 years. In 1987, the world's most powerful launch vehicle Energia was launched for the first time with the Soviet reusable spacecraft Buran (still in unmanned mode).

In the mid-1980s, the computerization of Soviet society began. In 1985, the first Soviet IBM-compatible personal computers were created - "Agat" and "Corvette", which were not inferior to the world's best electronic equipment, and mass production of cheap home computers "BK" also began. Computerization of schools was declared a priority program. A course was set for “computer education.”

Radical changes have also occurred in the automotive industry. Several of the largest automobile factories in the USSR switched to the production of front-wheel drive passenger cars: VAZ-2108, VAZ-2109, VAZ-1111 (Oka), Moskvich-2141, ZAZ-1102 (Tavria). The launch of these models into mass production for some time eliminated the gap between the Soviet automobile industry and the West.

It is clear that many of these technical achievements were developed not during the period of “perestroika”, but in previous years, but these developments were put into practice at a time when Soviet production managers, in their own way, understood the slogans of “acceleration” and “intensification” production", used them to prepare for new breakthroughs in Soviet technology.

The year, which became a year of man-made disasters, caused serious damage to the development of Soviet technology. On April 26, 1986, a powerful accident occurred at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, where during the experiment the 4th power unit exploded, and a large number of radioactive isotopes were released into the atmosphere, scattering around several hundred kilometers. The remains of the reactor were localized (walled up in a concrete “sarcophagus”).

Another tragedy occurred on August 31, 1986, when the passenger ship Admiral Nakhimov collided with the dry cargo ship Pyotr Vasev in Tsemes Bay near Novorossiysk. Both ships sank, killing several hundred people.

These disasters caused enormous damage to the Soviet Union, since many people began to fear both nuclear energy and scientific and technological progress in general.

In the second half of 1986, the country's leadership came to the conclusion that the country's social and economic progress could only be ensured through a radical restructuring of the system of social relations. The transformations were supposed to begin with the democratization of society and changes political system in USSR. A special role here was given to the policy of openness and strengthening the influence of the media.

In the lexicon of M.S. Gorbachev, the term glasnost appeared at the XXVII Congress of the CPSU (February-March 1986). However, by that time it was still too early to talk about the policy of glasnost.

According to M.S. Gorbachev, the main content of this concept was nothing more than a renewal of the official ideology. Glasnost was supposed to help strengthen socialism. To gain confidence in himself and his intentions, Gorbachev had to critically reconsider the activities of his predecessors. And at the Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee held in January 1987, the policy of “glasnost” and “democratization” was proclaimed. Officially, this was presented as the introduction of “freedom of speech.”

Sharp, revealing materials began to appear in the press, crimes of the past were made public; bookstores and publishing centers were filled with literature that had until recently been banned; films that had previously been censored were shown on television. The central theme is the country's historical past.

The liberation of speech and creativity took place in acute political struggle, violent clashes. The proclamation of the policy of glasnost contributed to the liberation of society from ideological restrictions, which was irreversible.

Economic reforms, political transformations, and the spiritual opening of society cannot fail to lead to a serious rethinking of the relationship between the USSR and the outside world. Since 1985, the desire of the Soviet government to reduce international tension and begin a positive dialogue with Western countries and the United States has come to the forefront of foreign policy.

Thus, in the summer of 1985, the USSR announced the introduction of unilaterally moratorium on nuclear testing, which, however, was canceled in 1987 because the United States did not join it. In addition, the USSR came up with initiatives to completely ban space strike weapons and reduce the nuclear weapons of the USA and the USSR by 50%.

In April 1986 M.S. Gorbachev announced the USSR’s readiness to simultaneously dissolve the Warsaw Pact and NATO, since by this time the situation in the world was already tense to the limit. As a result, a General Agreement was signed on contacts in the field of science, technology, education, culture and other areas, on the resumption of regular air traffic between the USSR and the USA at the end of April.

At the XXVII Congress of the CPSU for the first time in its entire period Soviet history it was stated that in modern international conditions the principle of socialist internationalism should be replaced by the principle of de-ideologized human values. And, starting from the 27th Congress, every major domestic matter was not left without connection with foreign policy.

By the beginning of 1987, it was already clear that the reform efforts of the previous years had failed, and this was recognized by M.S. himself. Gorbachev. At the January Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, the issue “On Perestroika and personnel policy party." M.S. Gorbachev put forward the concept of perestroika, political reform, alternative elections, secret voting in party elections. Already by the fall, serious changes had emerged in the socio-political life of the country: a new ideology reforms based on the denial of the positive experience of building socialism under I.V. Stalin and L.I. Brezhnev.

At the same time, at the January Plenum, a reform plan was adopted. The main ideas were aimed at awakening the activity of the masses interested in renewal processes. Significant changes have occurred in economic policy. They were determined by the Law on State Enterprises (Associations), adopted by the USSR Supreme Council, as well as the Law “On Cooperation” (May 1988). The 1st act significantly expanded the independence of enterprises, the 2nd revived private entrepreneurship, but gradually private initiative began to be drawn into the sphere of the “shadow” economy.

From 1987 to 1990, the planned system of resource distribution was being phased out: at the end of 1987, there was a reduction in the range of planned types of products, which the State Planning Committee brought to enterprises in the form of state orders. During this entire period, middle management was eliminated and the transition to a two-tier formula - “ministry - plant” was carried out. Thus, enterprises received fairly broad independence. Enterprises could set their own wages, determine the number of employees, and choose business partners. Most enterprises took advantage of the law to increase wages and an increase in the expensive range of goods, which led, however, to a growing imbalance between the increasing volume of money supply in the hands of the population and the lagging volume of production of goods and services. Since 1988, many previously available goods have become scarce, and this has led to a widespread aggravation of social problems.

The crisis in the sphere of consumption, which intensified with each month of reform, led to the fact that by the spring of 1992, cooperation, on which great hopes were pinned and which was called upon to “work for socialism,” formally left Russian life, since the very concept of cooperation has disappeared from the legislation. To some extent, this disappearance was compensated by the development of small enterprises and, accordingly, small entrepreneurship.

In 1987, the creation of commercial banks and the corporatization of enterprises began, many of which were leased by the state with the right to purchase.

The beginning of self-organization of society was manifested in the emergence of various associations and groups, informal movements.

Within the power party structures at this time, a division gradually began between those who sought to radicalize changes, those who took more cautious positions, and those who did not want any changes. Political disengagement and the formation of anti-perestroika opposition to the reform course led to an attempt to limit glasnost. Meanwhile, restrictions on subscriptions to 44 popular publications at the time, imposed in December, were lifted in 1989.

In the spring of 1988, a massive campaign began to prepare for the XIX All-Union Conference of the CPSU, which was to be held in July. In a report given by M.S. Gorbachev at this conference, declared the need to create a “rule of law state” in the USSR, spoke about the need to narrow the competence of party bodies, assign exclusively to the soviets government functions. The decisions of the 19th Party Conference provided for the creation of new state institutions: the Congress of People's Deputies and a permanent parliament. This was precisely what was supposed to contribute to the democratization of society, strengthening the influence of citizens on the preparation and adoption of government decisions. It was assumed that the CPSU would gradually withdraw from the sphere operational management social processes. As a result, in September 1988, the apparatus of the CPSU Central Committee was reorganized, and the total number of employees of the apparatus was reduced.

Against the backdrop of internal changes, the formation of the concept of “new political thinking” continued in foreign policy The USSR, which was finally formed by the end of 1988. Thus, at the end of 1987, a meeting took place between R. Reagan and M.S. Gorbachev in Washington, where the first agreements were reached: the Treaty on the Elimination of Intermediate-Range and Shorter-Range Missiles was signed; in February 1988, the beginning of the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan was officially announced; During 1988, negotiations were held to resolve conflicts in Kampuchea, indicators of trade, scientific, technical and cultural cooperation with China, etc. went up.

On December 1988, the Supreme Council of the USSR adopted the Law “On elections of people's deputies of the USSR”, resolutions “On further steps to implement political reform in the field of state construction” and “On calling elections of people's deputies of the USSR”, which took place in March of the following year. At the First Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR M.S. Gorbachev was elected Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. At the same time, the opposition Interregional Deputy Group was formed (B.N. Yeltsin, A.D. Sakharov, Yu.N. Afanasyev, etc.).

Changes in the state-political system of the USSR were continued at the III Congress of People's Deputies (1990); It was then that Article 6, which established the leading and directing role of the party in the life of society, was removed from the Constitution, and the institution of the presidency was established in the USSR. M.S. was elected to this position at the Congress. Gorbachev. In the spring of 1990, elections of people's deputies to local (republican, city, etc.) Soviets took place throughout the country. Election of M.S. Gorbachev as President of the USSR at the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR in March 1990 changed the system of political power.

At a meeting with representatives of US political and public circles dedicated to the 20th anniversary of perestroika, which took place in Washington on October 21, 2005, M.S. Gorbachev said that “during the years of perestroika the following were ensured:

exit from totalitarianism to democracy;

pluralism in the political and economic spheres;

affirmation of the principles of freedom of choice, freedom of conscience and religion;

recognition of dissent;

the country opened up to the world by adopting a law on freedom of movement, including freedom to travel abroad;

Through the joint efforts of the republics, a new Union Treaty was prepared for signing.”

Valeria Novodvorskaya in her article “Ten Feats of Gorbachev” says that “Mikhail Sergeevich gave” (in this case, the name Gorbachev acts as a synonym for perestroika), more specifically (despite the sarcasm): 1. glasnost, the release of all political prisoners before 1990. , cessation of arrests under the articles “undermining and weakening the system” and “slander of Soviet reality”, 3. withdrawal of troops from Afghanistan, 4. beginning of the liquidation of the military bloc, 5. introduction into political use of the word and concept of “consensus”, 6. cooperation, permission of exchanges, the beginning of currency liberalization, 7. 70% easier travel abroad, 8. Pre-parliament, 9. rejection of the Chinese model (modernization in half with blood), 10. there was no attempt to retain power and the Union by force in 1991.

The results of a study conducted by the ROMIR Monitoring holding in 2005 (the twentieth anniversary of perestroika) clearly demonstrated the opinion of the population of our country regarding the results of Gorbachev’s policies. Thus, 48% of Russians who took part in the survey consider the collapse of the Soviet Union to be the main result; many are confident that perestroika led to our country losing its superpower status; the same number blame it for the collapse of the socialist economy. Few thought that perestroika was an attempt to improve socialism and put an end to the arms race.

Similar studies have been conducted previously. Professor on survey results Russian population(February 1995), dedicated to the events of 1985-1991, spoke about the population’s high assessment of Gorbachev’s foreign policy (the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan, the end of the Cold War, the arms race, the confrontation between the USSR and the West, etc.), state policies regarding former political prisoners as well as in the field of civil liberties. V. Kuvaldin also noted the approving attitude of Russians towards the first steps of economic reforms (elections of leaders labor collectives, expansion of economic independence of enterprises, beginning of legislative registration of private property rights). At the same time, the rejection of many Russians at the time of the decade since the beginning of perestroika was caused by the renaming of cities, streets, enterprises, institutions, the anti-alcohol campaign, the lifting of the ban on erotic publications, films, and performances.

Of course, not all results were listed. In this regard, it makes sense to consider the results of perestroika in three aspects: in terms of the political, economic and socio-cultural life of the country.

The inconsistency and ill-conceived nature of many economic reforms has led to a serious crisis in this area human life, the emergence of a shortage of consumer goods, the collapse of the previous Soviet economy.

The “new thinking” policy pursued at M.S. Gorbachev in the field of foreign policy, put an end to the war in Afghanistan, contributed to the end of the Cold War between the two superpowers - the USA and the USSR, and the resolution of many armed conflicts in the world.

If we talk about perestroika in a broader sense, expanding the historical context, it will become obvious that its process is still ongoing, since the main goal of this process is to build a civil society, a stable and acceptable socio-political system for the majority.

Bibliography

perestroika Gorbachev renewal of power

1.Abalkin L. Perestroika on the scales of history // EKO, 2006, No. 9.

.Akhiezer A.S. Russia: Criticism of historical experience. Volume 1. - Novosibirsk, 1997.

.Bondarev V. Ten years later // Rodina, Winter 1995, No. 2.

4.Butenko A.P. Where we are coming from and where we are going: A philosopher’s view of the history of Soviet society. - L., 1990.

5.Gorbachev M.S. 20 years since the beginning of perestroika in the USSR [The main content of the speech by M.S. Gorbachev at a meeting with representatives of US political and public circles in Washington on October 21, 2005]. - www.gorby.ru.

6.Kara-Murza S.G., “Soviet civilization”, T. II.

7.Novodvorskaya V. Ten exploits of Gorbachev // New Time, 2005, No. 12.

.Ozhegov S.I. Dictionary. - M., 2005.

.Pihoya R.G. “Soviet Union: History of Power”, Novosibirsk, 2000.

.Sogrin V. 1985-2005: Three transformations modern Russia // National history, 2005, №3.

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Stages

The main stages of Perestroika in the USSR 1985-1991:

March 1985 - early 1987 The slogans of this stage were the phrases: “acceleration” and “more socialism.”
1987-1988 At this stage, new slogans appeared: “glasnost” and “more democracy.”
1989-1990 The stage of “confusion and vacillation”. The formerly united camp of perestroika split. Political and national confrontation began to gain momentum.
1990-1991 This period was marked by the collapse of socialism, the political bankruptcy of the CPSU and, as a consequence, the collapse of the Soviet Union.

Reasons for perestroika in the USSR

The beginning of change

In March 1985, M. S. Gorbachev was elected to the post of General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee. The following month, the new leadership of the USSR proclaimed a course for the accelerated development of the country in the social and economic sphere. This is where the real Perestroika began. “Glasnost” and “acceleration” will eventually become its main symbols. In society, one could increasingly hear slogans like: “we are waiting for changes.” Gorbachev also understood that changes were urgently needed by the state. Since the time of Khrushchev, he was the first General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee who did not disdain communicating with ordinary people. Traveling around the country, he went out to people to ask about their problems.

Working to implement the set course for the development and implementation of the reforms of Perestroika in the USSR of 1985-1991, the country's leadership came to the conclusion that sectors of the economy needed to be transferred to new ways of managing. From 1986 to 1989 Laws were gradually issued on state enterprises, individual labor, cooperatives, and labor conflicts. The latter law provided for the right of workers to strike. As part of economic reforms, the following were introduced: state acceptance of products, economic accounting and self-financing, as well as the appointment of directors of enterprises based on the results of elections.

"Publicity"

From an economic point of view, Perestroika began with “acceleration of development.” In spiritual and political life, its main leitmotif was the so-called “glasnost”. Gorbachev said that democracy is impossible without “glasnost.” By this he meant that the people should know about all state events of the past and processes of the present. The ideas of replacing “barracks socialism” with socialism with a “human face” began to appear in journalism and statements of party ideologists. During the years of Perestroika in the USSR (1985-1991), culture began to “come to life.” The authorities have changed their attitude towards dissidents. Camps for political prisoners gradually began to close.

Political changes

The policy of Perestroika in the USSR of 1985-1991 assumed the emancipation of society, as well as its deliverance from party tutelage. As a result, the need for political reforms was put on the agenda. The most important events in the internal political life of the USSR were: the approval of the reform of the state system, the adoption of amendments to the constitution and the adoption of the law on the election of deputies. These decisions became a step towards organizing an alternative electoral system. The Congress of People's Deputies became the highest legislative body. He nominated his representatives to the Supreme Council.

Foreign policy

National movements and political struggle

The strengthening of national movements, as well as opposition to the Union Center and the power of the Communist Party, became the determining factor in the crisis of the “tops”. Back in 1988, tragic events unfolded in Nagorno-Karabakh. For the first time since the civil war, demonstrations took place under nationalist slogans. Following them, pogroms occurred in Azerbaijani Sumgait and Uzbek Fergana. The apogee of national discontent was the armed clashes in Karabakh.

Elections of 1990

The parliamentary elections in Ukraine, Belarus and the RSFSR became the first truly democratic elections. About 30% of positions in the highest legislative bodies were given to deputies with democratic orientation. These elections became an excellent illustration of the crisis in the power of the party elite. The society demanded the abolition of Article 6 of the Constitution of the Soviet Union, which proclaimed the supremacy of the CPSU. This is how a multi-party system began to form in the USSR. The main reformers, B. Yeltsin and G. Popov, received high positions. Yeltsin became chairman of the Supreme Council, and Popov became mayor of Moscow.

The beginning of the collapse of the USSR

M. S. Gorbachev and Perestroika in the USSR of 1985-1991 are associated by many with the collapse of the Soviet Union. It all started in 1990, when national movements began to gain more and more momentum. In January, as a result of the Armenian pogroms, troops were brought into Baku. The military operation, accompanied by a large number of casualties, only temporarily distracted the public from the issue of Azerbaijan’s independence. Around the same time, Lithuanian parliamentarians voted for the independence of the republic, as a result of which Soviet troops entered Vilnius. Following Lithuania, a similar decision was made by the parliaments of Latvia and Estonia. In the summer of 1990, the Supreme Council of Russia and the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine adopted declarations of sovereignty. The following spring, independence referendums were held in Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Georgia.

Autumn 1990. M. S. Gorbachev, who was elected president of the USSR at the Congress of People's Deputies, was forced to reorganize government bodies. Since then, the executive bodies have been directly subordinate to the president. The Federation Council was established - a new advisory body, which included the heads of the union republics. Then the development and discussion of a new Union Treaty began, regulating relations between the republics of the USSR.

Russian presidential elections

August putsch

The party and state leadership, believing that only decisive measures would lead to the preservation of the political positions of the Communist Party and stopping the collapse of the USSR, resorted to forceful methods of control. On the night of August 18-19, when the President of the USSR was on vacation in Crimea, they formed the State Emergency Committee (GKChP). The newly formed committee declared a state of emergency in some areas of the country; announced the disbandment of power structures that violate the 1977 Constitution; interfered with the activities of opposition structures; banned meetings, demonstrations and rallies; took tight control of the media; and finally sent troops into Moscow. A.I. Lukyanov, Chairman of the Supreme Council of the Soviet Union, supported the State Emergency Committee, although he himself was not a member of it.

The Russian leadership used the August putsch to defeat the CPSU. Yeltsin issued a decree according to which the party must suspend its activities in Russia. The property of the Communist Party was nationalized and funds were seized. The liberals who came to power in the central part of the country took away the levers of control over the security forces and the media from the leadership of the CPSU. Gorbachev's presidency was only formal. The majority of the republics refused to conclude the Union Treaty after the August events. Nobody thought about “glasnost” and “acceleration” of Perestroika. The question of the future fate of the USSR was on the agenda.

Final disintegration

In the last months of 1991, the Soviet Union finally collapsed. The Congress of People's Deputies was dissolved, the Supreme Council was radically reformed, most of the union ministries were liquidated, and instead of the Cabinet of Ministers, an inter-republican economic committee was created. The State Council of the USSR, which included the President of the Soviet Union and the heads of the union republics, became the highest body for managing domestic and foreign policy. The first decision of the State Council was to recognize the independence of the Baltic countries.

On December 1, 1991, a referendum was held in Ukraine. More than 80% of respondents were in favor of state independence. As a result, Ukraine also decided not to sign the Union Treaty.

Results of Perestroika in the USSR 1985-1991

Despite the fact that Perestroika ended disastrously, it still brought a number of important changes to the life of the USSR, and then its individual republics.

Positive results of perestroika:

The victims of Stalinism were completely rehabilitated.
Such a concept as freedom of speech and views appeared, and censorship became less strict.
The one-party system was eliminated.
There is now the possibility of unhindered entry/exit into/from the country.
Military service for students undergoing training was cancelled.
Women are no longer put in prison for adultery.
Rock was allowed.
The Cold War formally ended.

Of course, Perestroika in the USSR of 1985-1991 also had negative consequences.

Here are just the main ones:

The country's gold and foreign exchange reserves decreased by 10 times, which caused hyperinflation.
The country's international debt has at least tripled.
The rate of economic growth of the country fell almost to zero - the state simply froze.

Well, the main negative result of Perestroika in the USSR 1985-1991. - collapse of the USSR.

The formal start date of Perestroika is April 1985, when the CPSU set a course to “accelerate” the economy. The new party leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, repeatedly emphasized the need for economic and political reforms to strengthen the Soviet state. The broad masses felt significant changes in the life of society in mid-1987, when a boom in cooperation began and the media began to provide space for open debate within the framework of the policy of openness.

Perestroika did not bring the expected economic recovery. Since 1989, the weakening of the centralized Soviet state, which occurred against the background of the collapse of the bloc of socialist states in Europe, became obvious. In 1990 and 1991 armed conflicts in a number of republics of the USSR, the parade of sovereignties and the rivalry between the authorities of the RSFSR and the allied authorities contributed to the further weakening of the Soviet Union. Unsuccessful financial reform in the spring of 1991 and the coup that followed a few months later paralyzed the allied authorities. In fact, perestroika ended with the collapse of the USSR at the end of 1991.

Table - Stages of perestroika in the USSR

A course to accelerate socio-economic development Slogan: “More socialism!”	M.S. Gorbachev served as General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee
	The course failed because... 1) oil prices fell 2) losses in the anti-alcohol company 3) the reforms were half-hearted, uncoordinated, and not thought out
	Expanding the independence of enterprises Revival of the private sector. Law on Cooperation.
	The reforms failed because... 1) the economy remained planned 2) the peasantry did not receive land 3) individual labor activity was inhibited
Beginning of reforms Slogan: “More democracy!”	The desire of part of the leadership of the CPSU to completely change the existing political system Politics M.S. Gorbachev was associated with an attempt to correct “certain deformations of socialism” Rejection of the “developed socialism” model.
	Glasnost, the desire to expose the most important features of the Stalinist system The Commission of the CPSU Central Committee for the rehabilitation of victims of political repression in the USSR in the late 80s and early 90s of the XX century was headed by: A. Sobchak A. Yakovlev
	Read an excerpt from the speech of the leader of the USSR and write his name. “I am convinced that the current Congress is taking us to a new stage in the development of democracy and glasnost, and perestroika itself. Probably everyone has their own opinion about the Congress, their own comments! their assessments of certain speeches and decisions, I believe that this is quite normal and natural. But, apparently, you will agree that the Congress, despite all the differences in its assessment, can be classified as one of the largest events in the history of the Soviet state.
	6 Article of the USSR Constitution was abolished at the first congress of people's deputies of the USSR, Gorbachev was elected chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR
	The principle of alternativeness and competition during elections in the USSR was introduced in 1989. For the first time, alternative elections of people's deputies of the USSR were held in the country.
	M.S. Gorbachev served as President of the USSR
	Changing public consciousness Liberalization Change of leadership opposition appeared The germ of future parties

Table - Results of the restructuring policy

BREAKTHROUGH	FAILURE
Political awakening.	Many meetings, rallies, processions, demonstrations. “Down with Gorbachev!” "Down with the USSR"
Democratic elections.	Sharp deterioration in economic situation
Collapse of the USSR	Mass strikes, especially miners.
	Dissatisfaction with the too slow pace of transformation was growing in society.
	The CPSU was seen as the culprit for slowing down reforms, and its authority was falling.
	National conflicts.

1. According to the political reform plan, in the spring of 1990 parliamentary elections were held in all union republics. Only Russia copied the union structure of parliament by establishing the Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR. All other republics abandoned the idea of a congress and established supreme councils elected directly by the people.

Political reform 1990 (the establishment and election of parliaments in the union republics) led to catastrophic consequences for the union center and the leadership of the CPSU:

thanks to parliamentary elections, anti-communist forces legally came to power in several republics at once (Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Georgia, Armenia, Moldova);
anti-communist parliaments elected new, non-communist and nationalist leaders - V. Landsbergis (Lithuania),

3. Gamsakhurdia (Georgia), A. Gorbunov (Latvia), A. Ruitel (Estonia), L. Ter-Petrosyan (Armenia), who pushed the first secretaries of the republican communist parties out of power and became the real leaders of their republics;

the newly elected parliaments of a number of republics began an open struggle for the republics to secede from the USSR (the parliament of Lithuania, on the very first day of its work and the first of the republics, on March 11, 1990, announced Lithuania’s secession from the USSR);
The Congress of People's Deputies of Russia - the largest union republic of the USSR - also began an opposition policy towards the center and elected B.N. as the new leader of Russia. Yeltsin (the coming to power in Russia of supporters of its independence caused the greatest harm to the unity of the USSR);
republics Central Asia, without advocating secession from the USSR, in fact they began to quickly build their own statehood. In the spring of 1990 (just a few days after the introduction of the post of President of the USSR), simultaneously two republics (Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan) were the first in the Union to establish the posts of presidents of republics, the post of President of the USSR ceased to be the only presidential post in the USSR, subsequently the posts of presidents of republics were introduced in most union republics;
in the fall of 1990, Turkmenistan held popular elections for the president of the republic for the first time in the history of the USSR; Georgia followed her example in the spring of 1991, where the second popular presidential election in the USSR was held; in the summer of 1991, popular presidential elections were held in Russia;
On June 12, 1990, the Russian Parliament adopted the Declaration of Sovereignty, by virtue of which the laws of Russia henceforth had priority over those of the Union; Russia's example was soon followed by all the other union republics - the USSR began a “parade of sovereignties” and the construction of the statehood of the republics, opposed to the union statehood and weakening it.

By mid-1990, the actual disintegration of the USSR took place:

The USSR Constitution was not in effect in most of the country;
The President of the USSR was no longer the only president in the country and had almost no power - at the same time there were 15 more presidents and other heads of republics who declared their sovereignty;
the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR lost its significance; it was replaced by 15 republican parliaments, which actually controlled the situation on the territory of the republics;
the leading role of the CPSU, the force that previously cemented the USSR and ensured the controllability of the Union, was constitutionally abolished; With the introduction of a multi-party system in half of the republics, the CPSU found itself in the role of opposition.

2. Several times the leadership of the USSR tried to exert force on the republics:

in April 1989, troops were used to suppress a demonstration in Tbilisi (Georgia), demanding the resignation of the then leader of the republic D. Patiashvili;
in January 1990, troops were sent into Azerbaijan to suppress popular uprisings against the leadership of the republic led by A. Vezirov;
in January 1991, an attempt was made to remove the Lithuanian leadership led by V. Landsbergis from power by military means;
in March 1991, military units were sent to Moscow in order to influence the Congress of People's Deputies of the Russian Federation, some of the deputies of which attempted to remove the Chairman of the Supreme Council of the RSFSR B.N. Yeltsin.

In all cases, these attempts to influence the development of the republics ended in failure.

3. On April 23, 1991, a meeting between M. S. Gorbachev and the leaders of the leading union republics took place in Novo-Ogarevo near Moscow. From that day on, the center’s policy towards the union republics and the problem of preserving the USSR changed radically.

As a result of this meeting, the Novo-Ogarevo Agreement was signed, according to which:

for the first time it was officially announced that it was impossible to preserve the USSR in its existing form;
a fundamental decision was made not to interfere with the secession from the USSR by those republics that seek this;
for the first time, the President of the USSR and the presidents of the union republics declared consent to the possible secession of six republics from the USSR - Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Georgia, Armenia and Moldova;
it was decided to form a new Union of nine republics (Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan - three Slavic republics, five Central Asian and one Transcaucasian);
It was decided to form a new Union by signing a new Union Treaty, which would replace the Treaty on the Formation of the USSR of 1922.

In order to prepare a new Union Treaty (which would regulate in detail the rights of the center and the expanding rights of the republics) between the President of the USSR M.S. Gorbachev and the leaders of nine union republics held negotiations for more than 3 months. These negotiations (“9+1”) went down in history as the Novo-Ogarevo process. On August 2, 1991, negotiations ended. Based on the results of the Novo-Ogarevo process, the following decisions were made:

a draft of a new Union Treaty was agreed upon and a “golden mean” was found in relations between the center and the republics;
its first signing was scheduled for August 20, 1991.

Due to the unsettled relations with some republics (for example, Ukraine refused to participate in the Novo-Ogarevo process until September 15; the leadership of Turkmenistan had a special position), it was decided to sign the Union Treaty not on one day, but gradually:

On August 20, 1991, the agreement was signed by only three republics - Russia, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan;
On September 3, Belarus, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan were supposed to join them;
after September 15 (after clarifying their positions) - Ukraine, Turkmenistan and Azerbaijan.

On August 2, 1991, the Union Treaty was “open for signature” by everyone. The republics had to be determined by the end of 1991. After this period, the USSR in its previous form had to cease to exist. Republics that did not sign the treaty before December 1991 became independent states.

The republics that acceded to the Treaty formed a new state (working names - the Union of Sovereign Soviet Republics or the Union Sovereign States) - successor to the USSR. After this, it was planned to adopt the Constitution of the new Union. By March 1992, elections to a new bicameral parliament were to take place in the new Union. National elections for the President of the USSR/USG were scheduled for June 28, 1992.

It was planned that M.S. would remain the President of the renewed USSR/USG with very reduced powers. Gorbachev, N.A. will become prime minister. Nazarbayev, many ministers will be replaced, the CPSU will be dissolved (in the words of M.S. Gorbachev, “it will disperse according to interests”). 4. However, these plans were thwarted. A day before the signing of the Union Treaty in the USSR on August 19, 1991, the August putsch broke out:

a group of senior Soviet leaders led by the Vice-President of the USSR G. Yanaev and the Chairman of the KGB V. Kryuchkov declared the President of the USSR M. S. Gorbachev temporarily removed from power and the creation State Committee on the state of emergency in the USSR - State Emergency Committee:
At the same time, a medical report on M.S.’s state of health was not provided. Gorbachev, the “putschists” explained their program little - instead, during the days of the putsch, the ballet “Swan Lake” was broadcast repeatedly on television;
no repressions were carried out, and attempts to arrest the top leaders of the RSFSR failed due to the inept actions of the perpetrators - as a result, opponents of the State Emergency Committee were at large and openly opposed the putsch;
Tanks with their ammunition removed began to be brought into Moscow; the soldiers were in a peaceful mood.

From the very beginning, the putsch seemed unreal, a theatrical performance; The leaders of the coup behaved indecisively, constantly gave contradictory orders, and looked pale at the press conference.

Unlike all the leaders of the union republics who tacitly supported the State Emergency Committee, the President of the RSFSR B.N. took a decisive position. Yeltsin, who spoke from the armor of a tank, declared the putsch illegal and organized popular resistance in Moscow and the defense of the White House - at that time the building of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR.

On August 21, all the leaders of the putsch left the Kremlin for negotiations with M.S. Gorbachev and were arrested along the way. The putsch failed.

5. After the failure of the coup, radical changes began in the system state power USSR, where the Russian leadership led by B.N. has now taken a dominant position. Yeltsin:

On August 22, 1991, Russia restored the historical flag - white-blue-red tricolor;
All the former leadership of the USSR and M.S.’s entourage were removed from power. Gorbachev; instead of them, proteges of B.N. came to the union structures. Yeltsin, who began to pursue the separatist line of the Russian leadership at the union level - M.S. Gorbachev effectively lost all power in the country;
On August 23, 1991, by decree of the President of the RSFSR B.N. Yeltsin on the territory of the RSFSR, until the court decision, the activities of the CPSU were suspended, the seizure of party property began;
example B.N. Yeltsin in August - September 1991 was followed by the leaders of other republics, where the activities of the Communist Party were suspended or prohibited;
August 26 M.S. Gorbachev left the post of General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee, which was the actual end of the CPSU in its previous form;
On September 5, 1991, under pressure from the leaders of the republics, the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR deprived itself of power and actually dissolved itself - the parliament in the USSR was liquidated;
all power in the USSR passed to a new body - the State Council of the USSR, consisting of the leaders of the union republics and replacing parliament and government.

In fact, as a result of these events, within 2 weeks (from August 21 to September 5, 1991), all legitimate government bodies (parliament, government, ruling party) were dissolved in the USSR. Power was taken completely into the hands of 12 people - the leaders of the union republics, among whom B.N. played the leading role. Yeltsin and NA. Nazarbayev. Despite assurances of a desire to resume the Novo-Ogarevo process and sign the Union Treaty, the specific actions of the leaders of the republics indicated the opposite:

as its first step, on September 6, 1991, the USSR State Council officially recognized the independence of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia; The first three republics left the USSR, the process of dismantling the USSR began;
in September - November 1991, the leaders of the 12 union republics remaining in the USSR were preparing to separate their republics from the USSR.

Played a decisive role in the collapse of the USSR political elites union republics, primarily Russia and Ukraine.

For the Russian elite, the collapse of the USSR meant the automatic elimination of M.S. Gorbachev as the head of state and the union center, the opportunity to take full power, at the same time over 3/4 of the territory of the USSR, throw off the “ballast” in the form of the union republics with their conflicts and problems, and focus on their own reforms;
for the Ukrainian elite, the collapse of the USSR meant the automatic achievement of Ukrainian independence;
For other republican elites, the collapse of the USSR meant an increase in their own status and lack of control by the center. In addition, the “backbone” that united the union state, the CPSU, for 70 years has disappeared.

The process of the collapse of the USSR accelerated the actual secession of Ukraine from the USSR:

December 1991, a referendum on the state independence of Ukraine took place;
more than 90% of referendum participants supported the independence of Ukraine;
At the same time, L.M. was elected President of Ukraine. Kravchuk is the current head of the republic and a supporter of Ukraine's exit from the USSR.

6. December 7 - 8, 1991 in Belovezhskaya Pushcha (Belarus) a meeting of the heads of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus took place - B.N. Yeltsin, L.M. Kravchuk and S.S. Shushkevich, at which the decision was made to dissolve the USSR.

Despite the fact that the meeting in Belovezhskaya Pushcha and its decisions in the first days had no legal force, neither the President of the USSR M.S. Gorbachev nor other allied bodies made any effective attempts to prevent the collapse of the USSR. Soviet society also perceived the Belovezhskaya Accords as a fait accompli and did not express protests about their content. After 2 weeks, the collapse of the USSR was formalized legally:

On December 21, 1991, the decision to dissolve the USSR was made by the heads of 12 union republics of the USSR at the Alma-Ata meeting of the heads of the republics;
in December 1991, the parliaments of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus denounced the 1922 Treaty on the Formation of the USSR;
December 25, 1991 President of the USSR M.S. Gorbachev “voluntarily” resigned as President of the USSR (despite the fact that his presidential powers did not expire until 1995), the Soviet flag was lowered from the Kremlin;
December 26, 1991 - one of the chambers of the dissolved Supreme Soviet of the USSR - the Council of the Republic, adopted the Declaration on the cessation of the activities of the USSR,
On December 31, 1991, the last meeting of the heads of 12 republics took place in Minsk, at which defense and other issues in connection with the collapse of the USSR were finally resolved;
On January 1, 1992, Russia took the place of the USSR in the UN, and the USSR was excluded from the list of UN states.

1. Perestroika is a period in the history of the USSR, during which cardinal changes took place in the life of Soviet society, the result of which was the rejection of the socialist path of development and the collapse of the USSR.

Perestroika in the USSR is closely connected with the activities of M.S. Gorbachev - a professional party functionary, elected on March 11, 1985, General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee. The course for perestroika was officially announced on April 23, 1985 at the April Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee.

2. Initially, the new policy was not called “perestroika”, but “acceleration and restructuring”, and the term “acceleration” was used much more often.

“Acceleration” implied a sharp increase in labor productivity, economic growth due to the full disclosure of the “economic potential of socialism.” The course of “acceleration and restructuring” was consolidated by the XXVII Congress of the CPSU, held in February - March 1986. The XXVII Congress of the CPSU set the country an unprecedented and almost unrealistic task - in just 15 years (1986 - 2000) to build the same number of new enterprises and produce the same amount of products as were produced during all the previous 70 years of Soviet power. Those. cover the volume of output of the first five-year plans, the war years, post-war reconstruction, the Khrushchev and Brezhnev eras - in just 15 years, double the entire industrial potential of the USSR. This was the meaning of “acceleration”.

If during the years of Stalin’s first five-year plans the whole country worked day and night and “lived” with industrialization (which in scale was much more modest than M.S. Gorbachev’s plans to double the 70-year-old industrial potential in 15 years), then, having announced “acceleration”, the party soon “forgot” about the enormous task and switched to new things. The term “acceleration” soon went out of circulation and by the end of 1986 - 1987. from the original “acceleration and restructuring” only the second term remained - “perestroika”.

Perestroika lasted 6 years (1985 - 1991) and went through three main stages in its development:

— 1985 — 1988 (before the XIX Party Conference) - search for ways of development, transformation within the framework of the existing party-political system;

— 1988 - 1990 - reform of the political system after the XIX Party Conference, establishment and strengthening of parliamentarism;

— 1990 - 1991 - the period of disintegration and collapse of the USSR.

3. Perestroika to initial stage(1985 - 1988) was expressed in:

— significant renewal and rejuvenation of leaders at all levels (more than 66% of the first secretaries of regional committees (regional leaders), most of the leaders of the union republics and members of the government were replaced);

- searching for ways to “accelerate” economic development (introducing self-financing at enterprises, electing directors, reviving cooperation, putting forward economic program goals - for example, giving each Soviet family a separate apartment by the year 2000);

- carrying out the policy of glasnost - open coverage of the negative aspects of social life, criticism of the activities of I. Stalin and L. Brezhnev, who were blamed for the “deformations” of socialism;

— initiatives in foreign policy, for example, a unilateral ban on nuclear tests, attempts to improve Soviet-American relations.

The achievements of the first stage of perestroika include:

- real rejuvenation of personnel, displacement of the most odious figures of the Brezhnev era (V. Grishin, D. Kunaev, N. Tikhonov, etc.), promotion of a number of modern-minded leaders (B. Yeltsin, N. Nazarbayev, V. Chernomyrdin, E. Primakov and etc.);

- emancipation of the situation in society, cleansing of a number of outdated dogmas, critical rethinking of the past and present;

- a significant improvement in Soviet-American relations, a decrease in tension in the world.

At the same time, a number of serious mistakes were made at the first stage of perestroika:

- frequent discrepancy between words and deeds;

— lack of a clear plan for transformation, vagueness of goals, “spontaneity of perestroika”;

— insufficient understanding by the leadership of the mentality of the people and established traditions, inability to correctly assess the people’s perception of certain steps;

— putting forward project-based and obviously impossible plans;

— inconsistency in carrying out reforms;

— excessive denigration of the historical past, undermining moral values;

— neglect of national interests for the sake of Western countries.

These mistakes largely predetermined the crisis of perestroika, which began in 1988 and grew until 1991 - the collapse of the CPSU and the collapse of the USSR. The symbols of the crisis of perestroika were:

- “Yeltsin’s case” - removal from office and persecution in 1987 - 1988. First Secretary of the Moscow City Party Committee B.N. Yeltsin, who predicted the crisis of perestroika at the October 1987 plenum of the CPSU Central Committee and called for greater consistency and determination in reforms;

— the unimpeded flight in 1987 across the state border of the USSR by the German amateur pilot M. Rust and his landing in the center of Moscow near the Kremlin, which demonstrated the low combat readiness of the Armed Forces;

- Chernobyl disaster of 1986 (highlighted the criminal negligence of personnel);

— decline in the morals of youth; distribution of pornography, drug addiction and prostitution;

— interethnic conflicts (unrest in Kazakhstan in 1986, unrest in the Baltic states and places of residence Crimean Tatars in 1987, armed clashes between Azerbaijanis and Armenians in Sumgait in 1988);

- other negative phenomena.

4. An attempt to get out of the emerging crisis was the XIX All-Union Party Conference, held on June 28-July 1, 1988 in Moscow. In fact (both in terms of composition and the significance of the decisions taken) it was an extraordinary party congress, but the then leadership did not dare to give this forum the status of a congress and called it a conference (at that time, CPSU conferences in the USSR had long gone out of fashion; the previous, XVIII party conference took place in 1941). The main result of the 19th Party Conference was the adoption of a decision to carry out political reform in the USSR. The political reform consisted of:

— revival and implementation of the slogan of Lenin’s times “All power to the Soviets!”;

— transformation of councils from nominal bodies into real authorities at all levels;

- the establishment of a new (“well forgotten old”) political body - the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR (the revival of the tradition of periodically holding congresses of councils that took place in 1917 - 1936);

— holding alternative elections for the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR, congresses (supreme councils) of union republics and other councils at all levels.

The 19th Party Conference in 1988 was a turning point in the entire perestroika, changing its course:

— before the 19th party conference, perestroika took place at the level of discussions, but did not affect the existing system of party and state power;

— after the 19th party conference, the first steps began to dismantle the existing system of power, which was no longer inaccessible and independent of the people;

— at the level of the USSR and union republics, elected parliaments were established, which became new centers of power, alternative to the party.

In pursuance of the decisions of the 19th Party Conference, in the fall of 1988, significant amendments were made to the 1977 Constitution of the USSR (the most serious since its adoption). As supreme body state power in the USSR, the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR was established. The Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR as a government body had the following features:

- consisted of 2250 deputies;

- a third of the deputies were elected by the people through direct elections from territorial constituencies;

— a third were elected from administrative-territorial and national entities;

- a third were elected from public organizations (parties, Komsomol, trade unions, etc.) without popular vote;

— the institution of district election commissions, endowed with broad powers, was established. As a result, not everyone could become a candidate for deputy. District commissions, selected by local bodies of the CPSU, were created in each district and weeded out those undesirable by holding choreographed “voter meetings.” From the many applicants, the commission “nominated” only two candidates (in rare cases, more), previously agreed upon with party bodies;

- had a two-tier structure - the congress elected the Supreme Council (a minority of deputies) from among its members, which worked constantly, and the majority of deputies met twice a year at the congress to make particularly important decisions.

The elections to the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR took place on March 26, 1989. The overwhelming majority of the elected deputies were proteges of the CPSU. The election of deputies from territorial districts, despite all the complexities of the electoral legislation, made it possible for some opposition candidates to “break through” into the number of deputies, among whom were G. Popov, B. Yeltsin, Yu. Afanasyev and others. The Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR took place on May 25 - June 9, 1989 in Moscow. Historical meaning of this congress was that:

— the first experience of parliamentarism in the USSR was obtained;

— the Supreme Council of the USSR was formed (M.S. Gorbachev was elected Chairman of the Supreme Council);

- the congress provided an opportunity for B.N. to return to big politics. Yeltsin - the future President of Russia;

- the congress opened up for the Soviet people a new galaxy of politicians who significantly influenced the situation in the country in the late 1980s - early 1990s: A. Sobchak, A. Sakharov, G. Popov and others;

- for the first time in the history of the USSR, an opposition group was formed that criticized the CPSU and the Soviet system (initially - an “interregional deputy group”, co-chairs - A. Sakharov, B. Yeltsin, G. Popov. Yu. Afanasyev. Yu. Palm).

Subsequently, congresses of people's deputies became a common event and did not cause such a stir as the First Congress. The main result of the elections and the holding of the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR is the emergence in the country of a second center of power, an alternative to the CPSU Central Committee and the Politburo. After the establishment of the Congress of People's Deputies in the USSR, the importance of the CPSU Central Committee, the Politburo, and the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee began to decline. The center of political life moved to parliament.

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