Examples of the destructive consequences of social conflict. Cheat sheet: Social conflicts, their causes, types and role in public life

Subjective causes of social conflicts lie in certain features of worldview, mentality, character (psychology), level of intelligence social subjects(Fig. 8.1). More specifically, these subjective characteristics of subjects are manifested in certain feelings, beliefs, interests, ideas, under the influence of which subjects act and begin social conflict.

Feelings, beliefs, interests, ideas as causes of social conflicts
Mental motivations of subjects to activity are feelings, beliefs, interests, ideas, in which emotions and goals are combined in unity. A goal is an idea of ​​the intended result of an action, indicating why it is being performed. A goal always presupposes a plan (program) for its implementation. Emotion is mental (mental) and physical energy with the help of which the subject carries out actions.

Feelings represent psychological states subject, in which the goal-setting and emotional components of social action are fused together. The subject carries out actions under the influence of emotions of envy, fear, aggressiveness, revenge, to some extent irrationally, thoughtlessly, and thoughtlessly. A sensual impulse to social action, caused by resentment, fear, envy, revenge, hatred, often becomes the cause of social tension and social conflict. Southern peoples, due to their emotionality, are more conflict-prone than northern peoples. Subjective causes of social conflicts can be a feeling of fear, love, indignation, hatred, pride, etc.

Beliefs represent the ideological and psychological state of the subject, including: 1) knowledge about something that the subject considers true (correct); 2) knowledge that the subject can argue to himself and others; 3) knowledge that evokes positive emotions (and thereby turns into a form of faith), which guides the subject in his activities.

Social conflict often arises due to the clash of different beliefs of subjects, different views (knowledge) on the same problem: industrial, economic, political, territorial, religious, etc. For example, there is still a conflict between the Catholic and Orthodox Church on the problem of God, rituals, etc., the conflict between communists and liberals on the issue of justice, democracy, political structure.

Interest is the intellectual and mental desire (attraction) of a subject to objects that are values ​​(benefits) for him. Depending on these benefits, interests are material (food, clothing, housing, etc.), economic (money, jewelry, shares, etc.), political (power, status, official position, etc.), religious (god, communist idea etc.), moral (goodness, duty, honor, justice, etc.), aesthetic (beauty, comic, tragic, etc.).

Interests include: 1) the purpose of the activity, i.e. the idea of ​​the good necessary for the subject (material, economic, political, etc.) in the mind of the subject; 2) a plan (program) of actions and operations aimed at achieving it (realization of the goal); 3) the emotional-volitional desire (attraction) of the subject to the subject of interest. In general, the interest is in the functional, dynamic, organizational, psychological system of regulation of the subject’s activity, but not in this activity itself.

It is obvious that material, aesthetic and other interests differ in the nature of goals, activity programs, and emotional-volitional aspirations. But at the same time, there is much in common between interests in their psychological, organizational, dynamic form, which allows them to be identified as specific regulatory mechanisms of the activities of subjects (individuals, organizations, communities).

Interests common to many individuals that characterize social organizations(parties, states, unions, etc.), social institutions(family, educational, economic, etc.) and social communities (professional, political, territorial), historical communities (ethnic groups, nations, civilizations), appear in the form of ideas: national self-determination, world domination, communist equality, God, etc. .P. These ideas are associated with the interests of individuals, and through them - with the emotions of people and become regulators (motives) of their activities. Therefore, Marx emphasized that an idea always loses its motivating power when it is separated from the interest of individuals.

Subjective causes of social conflicts may include:
1) contradictions between the interests of people and the norms of behavior in society, which Parsons drew attention to.
For example, the norm requires caring for others, and economic interest pushes for profit. This always causes social conflict both within the subject and between subjects;
2) the contradiction between the same interests of different subjects aimed at the same subject (power, oil, territory, sovereignty, etc.);
3) opposing interests of different subjects (for example, Chechen extremists strive for sovereignty, and Russia - for territorial integrity);
4) misunderstanding of interests, intentions, actions by subjects who begin to see them as a threat to themselves. These include economic difficulties, national self-determination, national pride, the desire for leadership, etc.

Need as a cause of social conflict
The deep basis of social conflict is the needs of social actors. They form the essence of emotions, beliefs, interests, ideas and other subjective motivations of social conflicts. Social conflicts are ultimately the result of dissatisfaction or infringement (partial satisfaction) of some basic needs of social subjects for security, well-being, self-affirmation, and identity.

Need, need, satisfaction form the cycle of functioning of a social subject. Need is a contradiction between the necessary and actual state of the subject’s “body,” reflected in the form of emotions, feelings, judgments of dissatisfaction (“I’m hungry,” “I have no rights,” etc.). Satisfaction is the unity of the necessary and actual state of the “body” of the subject, reflected in emotions, feelings, judgments of satisfaction (“I am full”, “I am full”, etc.). These are passive states of the subject under the influence of the interaction of the internal (body) and external environment.

Need is a need-driven desire for satisfaction, representing a powerful conscious - psychological mechanism regulation of human activity. This is not an activity, but rather a mechanism for regulating activity in which the need is realized.

The need includes: 1) an idea - a goal about the social good that it needs to satisfy; 2) a set of interests-goals that act as means of realizing the need-goal; 3) a program of evaluative and cognitive actions of environmental objects to select the desired good among them; 4) a program of consumer actions and operations that transform an object of consumption into an object of satisfaction and the “body” of a social subject.

All people’s needs can be divided into material (food, clothing, housing, etc.), social (safety, respect, self-affirmation, etc.), spiritual (goodness, justice, beauty, God, etc.). They differ in their subjects and conscious-psychological mechanisms of implementation. A need, when realized, does not always lead to a state of satisfaction for the subject. Then the need either intensifies, or is replaced, or disappears. The latter leads to the transformation of the subject, since needs form his essence.

Intelligence and social ideal as causes of social conflicts
The most important subjective cause of social conflicts is the level of intelligence. Lack of intelligence often becomes a subjective cause of social conflicts, when the organizing and aggressive party cannot “calculate” the balance of their own and others’ forces, the cost of victory and defeat, and gets involved in a conflict in the hope of an easy victory, when there are corresponding needs, interests, beliefs, etc. P. This happened to the Russian leadership led by Yeltsin during the first Chechen war. One of the main subjective reasons for the collapse of the USSR and the collapse of the proletarian-socialist formation was the lack of sufficient intelligence and dogmatism of the then political leadership of the country.

The rational activity of a social subject represents the unity of the social ideal and intellect. Only in relation to our existing social ideal can we evaluate our actions as right or wrong. The social ideal is different for different social subjects, and therefore forms the most important subjective cause of social conflicts. For the sake of the ideal of social equality, the Bolsheviks unleashed a terrible social conflict in Russia, which ended civil war, collectivization, industrialization, the elimination of religion, the expulsion of the Russian intelligentsia and unanimity. The presence of a liberal or socialist ideal is the most important subjective condition of social conflict in modern society.

Objective causes of social conflicts
Subjective causes of social conflicts are an expression of objective causes and their interpretations by subjects. Objective reasons are those that are outside the consciousness and will of people, social communities, institutions, organizations. The many objective causes of social conflicts can be grouped into several general series (Fig. 8.2).

Disorganization of society as a cause of social conflict
First of all, such an objective cause of social conflicts is, according to the famous Polish sociologist J. Szczepanski, the disorganization of society, i.e. output of production (production stoppage and unemployment), economic (inflation, non-payment wages etc.), social (inequality between different social groups), political (collapse of the USSR, war in Chechnya, etc.), ideological (the struggle of liberalism and communism in post-Soviet Russia) processes beyond the limits of existing norms in society and threatening the interests of individuals, social groups, organizations.

This, for example, happened after the collapse of the USSR, when instead of the state distribution of goods and money a market one was introduced, instead of social equality of people, a pronounced division into the poor and the rich arose, when the leading role of the party disappeared, and the judicial and legal system had not yet arisen when the communist ideology was recognized as utopian, and no other ideology, except for the ideology of enrichment, was proposed.

The disorganization of society is associated with the disintegration of state and public (family, school, trade union, etc.) institutions (organizations) that are unable to keep environmental, production, economic, political, ideological processes within normal limits for a given (in our case, post-Soviet) society . This also includes natural (earthquakes, floods, tsunamis), man-made (Chernobyl), economic (depreciation of deposits, privatization, financial disasters, etc.), political (shooting of the Russian parliament building in October 1993, reform of the vertical of power, started by President V. Putin, etc.), military ( Chechen War) disasters and events.

The state of disorganization and disintegration of society causes many social conflicts, which outwardly manifest themselves in the spread of alcoholism, sexual promiscuity, an increase in crime, an increase in mental illness, the spread of suicide, etc.

Inequality of opportunities for social actors
Inequalities in the capabilities of social actors in the everyday, economic, political, national, educational, and religious spheres are often cited as objective causes of social conflicts. This inequality relates to the resources, statuses, and values ​​of subjects. There are subjects with the same interests who lack resources. For example, there is a shortage (shortage) of housing, work, security, power, etc. So, now a significant part of people do not have enough money to live, pay for housing, buy medicine, maintain safety, etc. The most important objective cause of social conflicts is the clash of different interests. For example, liberals are focused on a market economy at the expense of the interests of the common people. But ordinary people do not want to sacrifice their lives, habits, beliefs for the sake of liberal ideas, plans, and reforms. It is obvious that with the development of humanity, the shortage of many goods will deepen, becoming an objective cause of social conflicts, as well as the opposition of interests of different social actors.

The desire to eliminate these causes and thereby social conflicts, especially class ones (between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat), gave rise to socialist projects for eliminating one or another type of inequality in general, especially class inequality. And this was done in the USSR and other countries of proletarian socialism. The foundations of many social conflicts were not essentially eliminated, but were driven deeper, as happened with conflicts between the intelligentsia and the proletariat and interethnic ones. As a result, it was discovered Negative consequences: the achievement of social equality in the political, social, economic spheres led the USSR to totalitarianism, stagnation in the economy and living standards of the population, loss of incentives for work and self-development, and aggravation of interethnic relations. As a result, the USSR lost its motives for self-propulsion and found itself in a state of stagnation during the Brezhnev period, which ultimately led the country to collapse.

This once again demonstrates that every inequality is an incentive for self-development of people and society. Inequality cannot be completely eliminated, it only needs to be mitigated to a certain extent. Social inequality also exists in countries of liberal (USA, etc.) and democratic (Germany, etc.) capitalism; for example in the USA to a greater extent, and in Germany – to a lesser extent.

Scientists have long discovered a connection between social inequality (equality) and the efficiency of social production: the higher the social inequality, the greater the efficiency of social production, the pace of social development and social instability. In market countries there is a universal mechanism for finding balance (unity) of these two sides. This is a mechanism of political democracy, the presence of right, center and left parties in the political superstructure of society. When right-wing parties are in power, society is focused primarily on production efficiency. The fair distribution of produced goods is gradually being disrupted, workers' indignation and political instability arise. As a result, left-wing parties come to power, focused on a more equitable redistribution of produced goods. There is a decrease in the efficiency of social production. Post-Soviet Russia still has a very long way to go in this direction.

Objective factors motivators of subjective reasons
Objective reasons - subjective reasons - social conflict - this is the cause-and-effect chain connecting the conflict with its causes.

Can subjective factors without objective prerequisites, i.e. themselves, cause social conflict? Yes. In this case, intrapersonal or interpersonal conflicts, which, by our definition, are not social, will become causes of social conflict, as may have been the case in the relationship between Yeltsin and Dudayev before the start of the first Chechen war.

If we consider that it is the infringement (dissatisfaction or partial satisfaction) of the needs of a social subject that is the final cause of social conflict, then the approach to its resolution also changes. To do this, you must first eliminate objective reasons infringement of the needs of social subjects, mitigate social inequality, establish democratic order in society, and not infringe on one social subject of another in its needs.

The resolution of a social contradiction over a social good should always be guided by the needs of the subjects. It is possible to fairly divide the subject of the conflict only when the needs of potential or actual opponents are fair. Therefore, a genuine resolution of social conflict is possible only with a deep analysis by the opposing subjects of their needs, interests, and claims. It is no coincidence that J. Barton, the leader of a team of researchers working on the problem of resolving social conflict, believes:

Only organizational efforts that fully satisfy basic human needs can bring true closure to conflict, i.e. such a resolution that fully affects the subject of the dispute and establishes new, self-sufficient relations between opponents.

Everyone has an idea. Every person has faced a situation of aggravation of relations with other people. Social conflicts are a concept that characterizes a situation of acute corresponding contradictions. With this aggravation of relations, interests and beliefs collide, which is due to various reasons. Let us consider what components, types and functions of social conflicts exist.

Concept and types of social conflicts

A social conflict always contains a moment of collision, that is, there is some divergence, a contradiction of interests and positions of the parties. The subjects of the conflict - the warring parties - have opposing opinions. They strive to overcome the contradiction in one way or another, while each side wants to prevent the other from realizing its interests. V social psychology applies not only to Depending on the subject, conflicts are distinguished:

• intrapersonal;
• interpersonal;
• intergroup.

Also included in social conflicts is the concept of internal content, regarding which contradictions can be rational and emotional. In the first case, the confrontation is based on the realm of the reasonable. It usually involves the reworking of social and managerial structures, as well as the liberation of unnecessary forms of cultural interaction. Emotional conflicts are characterized by a strong affective aspect, often aggression and the transfer of corresponding reactions to the subjects. Such a conflict is more difficult to resolve, because it affects the personal sphere and can hardly be resolved in rational ways.

Intergroup social conflicts: concept and functions

Social psychology examines mainly which can be divided into:

• socio-economic;
• international;
• ethnic;
• ideological;
• political;
• religious;
• military.

Each conflict has a dynamic course, according to which intergroup clashes can occur spontaneously, planned, short-term or long-term, they can be controlled and uncontrollable, provoked or initiative.

Conflicts cannot be viewed only from a negative point of view. Positive functions include accelerating the process of self-awareness, affirming certain values, defusing emotional tension, etc. Social conflict indicates a problem that needs to be solved, to which one cannot simply turn a blind eye. Thus, collision contributes to the regulation of social relationships.

Ways to get out of a conflict situation

• rivalry - defending one's beliefs to the last;
• adaptation - accepting someone else's point of view to the detriment of one's own;
• avoidance - leaving a conflict situation by any means;
• compromise - willingness to make concessions to resolve the situation;
• cooperation - finding a solution that satisfies the interests of all parties to the conflict.

The last method is the most constructive and desirable.

Social conflict

Social conflict- conflict, the cause of which is disagreement between social groups or individuals with differences in opinions and views, the desire to take a leading position; manifestation social connections of people.

In the field of scientific knowledge, there is a separate science dedicated to conflicts - conflictology. A conflict is a collision of opposing goals, positions, and views of the subjects of interaction. At the same time, conflict is the most important aspect of interaction between people in society, a kind of cell of social existence. This is a form of relationship between potential or actual subjects of social action, the motivation of which is determined by opposing values ​​and norms, interests and needs. An essential aspect of social conflict is that these subjects act within the framework of some broader system of connections, which is modified (strengthened or destroyed) under the influence of the conflict. If interests are multidirectional and opposite, then their opposition will be found in the mass of the most different estimates; they themselves will find a “field of collision” for themselves, and the degree of rationality of the claims put forward will be very conditional and limited. It is likely that at each stage of the conflict it will be concentrated at a certain point of intersection of interests.

Causes of social conflicts

The reason for social conflicts lies in the definition itself - it is the confrontation of individuals or groups pursuing socially significant goals. It arises when one party to the conflict seeks to realize its interests to the detriment of the other.

Types of social conflicts

Political conflicts- these are conflicts caused by the struggle for the distribution of power, dominance, influence and authority. They arise from various interests, rivalries and struggles in the process of acquiring, distributing and implementing political state power. Political conflicts are directly related to gaining leading positions in institutions and structures political power.

Main types of political conflicts:

conflict between branches of government;

conflict within parliament;

conflict between political parties and movements;

conflict between various parts of the management apparatus, etc.

Socio-economic conflicts- these are conflicts caused by the means of life support, the use and redistribution of natural and other material resources, wage level, use of professional and intellectual potential, price level for goods and services, access and distribution of spiritual benefits.

National-ethnic conflicts- these are conflicts that arise during the struggle for the rights and interests of ethnic and national groups.

According to the classification of D. Katz’s typology, there are:

conflict between indirectly competing subgroups;

conflict between directly competing subgroups;

conflict within the hierarchy over rewards.

see also

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Social conflict - this is a confrontation between individuals or groups pursuing socially significant goals (distribution of values, resources, power, etc.). It occurs when one party seeks to achieve its interests and goals to the detriment of the interests of others.

Social conflicts can have both positive and negative impact for the development of society. On the one hand, they are a source of socio-political changes, preventing the stagnation of social systems, stimulating the modification of social relations, structures and institutions. In this sense, conflicts act as a form of regulation of the conflicting interests of various groups of society and help defuse tension in their relations. On the other hand, social conflicts carry the threat of destabilizing society and can lead to catastrophic consequences - revolutions, wars, anarchy.

Social conflicts are caused by a variety of reasons. These are economic and social inequality, shortage of life goods (material, spiritual, prestigious, etc.), unequal position in relation to power, divergence of interests and goals of various social groups, ideological and political disagreements, religious contradictions, incompatibility of individual and social values etc.

IN modern conditions Each sphere of social life gives rise to its own specific conflicts. Here we can distinguish political, socio-economic and national-ethnic conflicts.

• 1. Political conflicts - these are conflicts over the distribution of power, dominance, influence, authority. They arise from differences of interests, rivalry and struggle in the process of acquisition, redistribution and implementation of political-state power. Political conflicts are associated with consciously formed goals of gaining leading positions in institutions and structures of political power. The main political conflicts include:
  • - conflicts between branches of government (legislative, executive, judicial);
  • - conflicts within parliament;
  • - conflicts between political parties and movements; - conflicts between various parts of the management apparatus, etc.

IN modern history In Russia, one of the forms of manifestation of political conflict was a long-term confrontation between the executive and legislative powers, which led to the dramatic events of October 1993. Elections became a partial resolution of this conflict Federal Assembly and acceptance new Constitution Russia. However, the causes of the conflict were not completely eliminated, and it moved to a new stage of its development, taking the form of confrontation between the President and the Federal Assembly. It is only now that constructive interaction has emerged between the executive and legislative powers.

2. Socio-economic conflicts - these are conflicts over means of life support, wage levels, the use of professional and intellectual potential, the level of prices for goods and services, access to the distribution of material and spiritual goods.

Socio-economic conflicts arise based on dissatisfaction, first of all, with the economic situation, which is considered either as a deterioration in comparison with the usual level of consumption (a real conflict of needs), or as a worse situation in comparison with other social groups (a conflict of interests). In the second case, a conflict may arise even with some improvement in living conditions, if it is perceived as insufficient or inadequate.

In modern Russian society, many socio-economic conflicts develop along the line “work collectives - state administration”. Along with the demands for increasing wages, living standards, eliminating wage arrears and paying pensions, the demands of collectives to defend their rights to the property of enterprises are increasingly being put forward. Such demands are addressed primarily to government bodies, which are the main subjects of property redistribution.

Mass conflicts in economic sphere often associated with the fact that the country still does not have a clearly developed legal framework for permitting labor disputes. Conciliation commissions and their arbitrations do not fully implement their functions, and administrative bodies in a number of cases do not implement the agreements reached. All this poses the task of creating a more effective legislative system for regulating labor conflicts.

3. National-ethnic conflicts - these are conflicts that arise during the struggle for the rights and interests of ethnic and national groups. Most often these conflicts are related to status or territorial claims. IN modern Russia the dominant factor in the conflicts was the idea of ​​sovereignty of territories, people or ethnic groups. Until the adoption of the new Constitution in 1993 Russian Federation Almost all regions fought to improve their status: autonomous regions sought to turn into republics, republics declared their sovereignty and independence. In extreme cases, the question of secession from Russia and gaining full state independence was raised (the most striking example is the Chechen conflict).

Territorial conflicts that arise between people living closely have become quite widespread in our country. ethnic groups(Ossetian-Ingush, Dagestan-Chechen conflicts). It should be noted that such conflicts are deliberately provoked by various forces of a nationalist, separatist, fanatical religious nature.

Thus, conflicts arising in the political and socio-economic spheres, in the field of interethnic relations, pose the greatest danger to society. In modern Russia, which is going through a difficult transition period, conflicts have become an everyday reality. It is important to learn how to manage them and achieve agreement between the conflicting parties.

Modern conflictology has formulated the conditions under which successful resolution of social conflicts is possible. One of the important conditions is a timely and accurate diagnosis of the causes of the conflict, i.e. identification of existing contradictions, interests, goals. To others, no less an important condition is a mutual interest in overcoming contradictions based on recognition of the interests of the opposite side. This can be achieved based on a goal that is meaningful to both parties. The third indispensable condition is a joint search for ways to overcome the conflict. Here it is possible to use a whole arsenal of means and methods: direct dialogue between the parties, negotiations through an intermediary, negotiations with the participation of a third party, etc.

Conflictology has also developed a number of recommendations, following which speeds up the process of conflict resolution: I) during negotiations, priority should be given to discussing substantive issues; 2) the parties should strive to relieve psychological and social tension; 3) the parties must demonstrate mutual respect for each other; 4) all participants must show a tendency to compromise.

An external sign of conflict resolution can be the end of the incident. Eliminating the incident is a necessary but not sufficient condition for resolving the conflict. Often, having stopped active conflict interaction, people continue to experience a tense state and look for its cause. And then the conflict that had died out flares up again. Complete resolution of a social conflict is possible only when the conflict situation changes. This change may take various shapes, but the most radical change is considered to be one that eliminates the causes of the conflict. It is also possible to resolve a social conflict by changing the demands of one of the parties: the opponent makes concessions and changes the goals of his behavior in the conflict.

The final, post-conflict stage is of great importance. At this stage, contradictions at the level of interests and goals must be finally eliminated, and measures must be taken to relieve socio-psychological tension and stop any struggle.

In modern Russia, it is important to make social conflicts (primarily shadow, implicit, latent) public, as open as possible. This will allow them to be brought under control and to respond in a timely manner to the processes occurring during the confrontation between the parties. And here funds can play a big role mass media, public opinion and other civil society institutions.

In sociology, modernization primarily refers to the transition from a traditional society to a continuously changing modern industrial society. According to the definition of the famous American sociologist N. Smelser, modernization is a complex set of economic, social, cultural, and political changes occurring in society in connection with the process of industrialization and the development of scientific and technical achievements.

Modernization theory was developed mainly in relation to developing countries. Nevertheless, it largely explains the process of reforming any society, its transformation according to the model of the advanced countries of the world. Modernization covers almost all aspects of social life - the economy, social relations, spiritual life, and the political sphere.

In the field of economics modernization involves the use scientific knowledge And modern technologies; deepening professional specialization; formation of markets for goods, capital, labor; development of entrepreneurship and market relations; increasing the independence of the economy from politics; separation of production and the workplace from the family economy; increasing rural labor productivity, development farm etc. Structural changes in the economy are accompanied by increased social mobility, mass migration from rural areas V big cities, transformation of traditional social structures, increasing the material standard of living of the population, etc.

In the socio-political sphere the main manifestations of modernization are the formation of the rule of law, democratization political system, party pluralism, growth of social activity of the population and its participation in political life, formation of civil society institutions, increase political culture citizens, development of media and communications.

In the spiritual and cultural sphere modernization presupposes the spread of the values ​​of individualism, the progress of science and education, the rationalization of consciousness, the formation of moral prerequisites for new forms of economic activity, secularization and the growing diversity of spiritual life. The essence of changes in this area is conveyed by the concept of “modernity” as a complex characteristic of the culture of modern Western society.

The culture of "modernity" means a commitment to rationalism and scientism, an orientation towards the growth of material production and technical progress, and an attitude towards nature as an object for the application of one's strength and knowledge. It is also the idea of ​​equality of opportunity and personal freedom, individualism, the mindset of achieving success, a person’s readiness for constant change and the desire to initiate such changes.

Depending on the nature and time of implementation, two types of modernization are distinguished: primary (organic) And secondary (inorganic). Primary modernization dates back to the period of the industrial revolution, which began in Great Britain in the 60s. XVIII century... and several decades later it covered the USA, France, Germany and others Western countries. This modernization occurred naturally, on the basis of its own socio-economic, political and socio-cultural prerequisites, and met the internal needs of social development. It flowed organically from the entire previous evolution of society and its historical preparedness for comprehensive, profound changes.

Secondary modernization associated mainly with developing countries in Asia, Africa, Latin America, is not an organic result of the natural course of evolution of society. It is largely dictated from the outside: the desire to enter the world community, adapt to the new geopolitical reality, and respond to the “challenge” from other countries. This is a kind of “catch-up development” method, when the authorities carry out reforms in order to overcome the historical backwardness of the country.

Such modernization is usually carried out by attracting foreign investment, borrowing advanced technology, purchasing foreign equipment, inviting foreign specialists, studying abroad, etc. Corresponding changes are taking place in the political and social spheres: the management system is radically changing, new structures and institutions of power are being created, and being rebuilt according to Western models the country's constitution is formulated, a new legislative system is formulated, the relationship between the state and society is revised. An important socio-psychological factor in this case is the so-called demonstration effect, the desire to imitate the richest, most developed countries in style and lifestyle.

Secondary modernization is, as it were, artificially introduced “from above”; it is inorganic for the socio-economic and spiritual system of society, violating its unity and historical continuity of development. Therefore, the majority of the population is often not ready for it and does not provide the necessary social support. All this determines the complex and sometimes contradictory nature of modernization processes in certain countries.

However, in a number of cases, secondary modernization can be crowned with success when countries eventually begin to develop on their own basis. This happened in Japan, which took only two decades to catch up and, in some respects, even surpass the United States, from where it originally borrowed advanced technology.

As for Russia, modernization has not yet brought the expected results. The country does not have an effective mechanism market economy, no civilized free enterprise, not secured high level life and social protection of the population, there is no support for small businesses, a large middle class has not developed, which determines the stability and well-being of society. At the same time, high scientific and intellectual potential Russian society harbors a certain hope for prosperous prospects for the development of modernization processes in our country.

It should be noted that modernization theorists are currently revising their conceptual guidelines in many ways. This is due to a new look at the role of traditional institutions and cultures, identifying their ability to organically join the processes of modernization, ensuring the integrity and spiritual unity of society. Thus, the opposition between traditional and industrial societies is no longer considered as a rigid antithesis, but as a moving relationship determined by the dynamism of the traditional principle, its ability to change and adapt to modern conditions.