Relief of foreign Europe. Geology of Europe

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EASTERN EUROPEAN PLATFORM. The crystalline foundation protrudes only in the northwest (shield) and southeast (). Throughout the rest of its length it is covered with sedimentary cover. The vast, covered part of the East European Platform is called the Russian Plate. In the southwest, the platform is limited by the Central European Plate, which covers the area of the Polish-German lowland, the bottom of the southern part and an area of southeastern Great Britain. This is a slab with a thick (10-12 km) sedimentary cover, and the age of its foundation is most likely Baikal. The CALEDONIAN FOLDED REGION of the Scandinavian Mountains frames the East European Platform from the northwest, continuing into northern England, Wales and. In this area, the geosynclinal stage ended with folding at the end of the Silurian, the orogenic stage continued in the Early Devonian and ended in the middle Devonian.

THE ANCIENT MASSIF (or platform) of ERIA is located in the very north of Scotland. It is believed that this is the remnant of the foundation of a significant ancient platform, most of which was crushed and submerged under the bottom of the adjacent shelf.

THE HINDUSTAN PLATFORM is located south of the Alpine-Himalayan belt and occupies the entire space of the peninsula, as well as the lowland plains of the lower reaches of the Ganges and Brahmaputra adjacent to the northwest, northeast and north of the mountains of Balochistan and Burma. Most of the Hindustan Platform is a vast shield with Precambrian basement exposed to the surface. This shield is separated from the bordering folded areas by a system of wide and deep depressions: in the northwest of the Indus basin, in the north - the Ganges, in the northeast - the area of \u200b\u200bthe confluence of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra.

The ALPINE-HIMALAYAN BELT unites the folded regions of Southern and Western Europe, South-East Asia, as well as the Northern coast. It separates the East European platform from the North African one; Tarim and South China - from Hindustan, stretching across the entire continent from the shores of the Atlantic to. The structure of the Alpine-Himalayan belt involves the Baikal and Hercynian folded regions, as well as the Cenozoic - Alpine and Indonesian. The Baikal ones form large central massifs, bordered and separated by narrow strips of Hercynian fold systems.

The ALPINE FOLDED REGION forms the interior of the Alpine-Himalayan belt and stretches along the seashores from the Andalusian mountains, the Balearic Islands and the Kabyle ranges of the northern coast, and through the Apennines, the Alps, the Carpathians, the Dinaric mountains of Yugoslavia and the Balkan Peninsula, and, most of the Lesser Peninsula. Then it continues into the borders of and, covering the mountains of Zagros and Balochistan, as well as the interior of Iran (Iranian Plateau) and southern Afghanistan. Even further to the east, the Alpine folded region narrows strongly and sharply and can be traced into the Himalayas, which represent its last narrow, although very long (2000 km) segment, which borders the Hindustan Platform.
The easternmost position in the strip of folded regions of the Alpine-Himalayan belt is occupied by the INDONESIAN FOLDED REGION, which includes the entire Indonesian archipelago and part of the Philippine archipelago. It begins in the west of Burma with the Arakan system of folds, stretching from north to south, then covers all the large islands and the entire arc of small islands. It is accompanied by a system of deep narrow gutters. The strong manifestation and seismic activity give grounds to consider the Indonesian archipelago with deep trenches to be a modern geosynclinal region.

Tectonics and general features of the relief of Foreign Europe

The geological structure of Europe is diverse. In the east, ancient platform structures, which are associated with plains, predominate, in the west - various geosynclinal formations and young platforms. In the west, the degree of vertical and horizontal division is much greater.

At the base of the East European Platform lie Precambrian rocks, which are exposed in the northwest in the form of the Baltic Shield. Its territory was not covered by the sea, having a constant tendency to rise.

Outside the Baltic Shield, the foundation of the European Platform is submerged to a considerable depth and is covered by a complex of marine and continental plateaus up to 10 km thick. In the areas of the most active subsidence of the plate, syneclises were formed, within which the Central European Plain and Basin are located.
To the south and southwest of the European platform in the Archean era, the Mediterranean (Alpine-Himalayan) geosynclinal belt extended. To the west of the platform was the Atlantic geosyncline, bounded by the North Atlantic Land (Eria). Most of it subsequently sank into the waters, with only small remnants surviving in the north of western Scotland and the Hebrides.

At the beginning of the Paleozoic, sedimentary rocks accumulated in geosynclinal basins. The BAIKAL FOLDING, which occurred at this time, formed small land masses in the north of Fennoscandia.

In the middle of the Paleozoic (end of the Silurian), the Atlantic geosyncline underwent strong mountain building (CALEDONIAN FOLDING). The Caledonian formations stretch from northeast to southwest, covering the Scandinavian mountains and the northern parts of Great Britain and Ireland. The Caledonides submerge into the sea and reappear in the western part of Spitsbergen.

In the Mesozoic south of the Hercynian formations Central Europe a vast Mediterranean geosynclinal basin extended, captured by mountain-building processes during the ALPINE OROGENESIS (Cretaceous and Tertiary periods). Folding and block uplifts, which led to the formation of modern alpine structures, reached their maximum development in the Neogene. At this time, the Alps, Carpathians, Stara Planina, Andalusian, Apennine mountains, Dinara, Pindus were formed. The direction of the Alpine folds depended on the position of the middle massifs of Hercynian age. The most significant of them were in the western Mediterranean the Iberian and Tyrrhenian, in the eastern - the Pannonian massif, which lies at the base of the Middle Danube Plain and caused a double bend. The southern bend of the Carpathians and the shape of the Stara Planina arc were influenced by the ancient Pontida massif, located on the site of the sea and the Lower Danube Plain. The Aegean massif was located in the central part of the Balkan Peninsula and the sea.

In the Neogene, alpine structures undergo verticalization. These processes are associated with the subsidence of some middle massifs and the formation in their place of depressions, now occupied by sections of the Tyrrhenian, Adriatic, Aegean, or low accumulative plains (Middle Danube, Upper Thracian, Padanian). Other central massifs experienced significant uplifts, which led to the formation of such mountainous areas as the Thracian-Macedonian (Rhodope) massif, the mountains of Corsica, Sardinia and the Calabrian peninsula, the Catalan Mountains. The fault caused processes that, as a rule, are associated with deep faults in the contact zones of the middle massifs and young folded ridges (the coasts of the Tyrrhenian and Aegean seas, the internal arc of the Carpathians).

Alpine movements covered not only Southern Europe, but also manifested themselves in Central and Northern Europe. In the Tertiary period, the North Atlantic landmass (Eria) gradually split and sank. Fractures and subsidence of the earth's crust were accompanied by volcanic activity, which caused the outpouring of enormous lava flows; as a result, the island of Iceland and the Faroe archipelago were formed, and some areas of Ireland and Scotland were blocked. Powerful compensation uplifts captured the Caledonides of Scandinavia and the islands.

Alpine folding revived tectonic movements in the Hercynian zone of Europe. Many massifs were raised and broken by cracks. At this time, the Rhine and Rhone grabens were founded. The activation of faults is associated with the development of volcanic processes in the Rhine Slate Mountains, the Auvergne massif, the Ore Mountains, etc.
Neotectonic movements that swept across the entire region affected not only the structure and relief, but also entailed. The Pleistocene was marked by glaciation, which repeatedly covered vast areas of plains and mountains. The main center of continental ice distribution was located in Scandinavia; the centers of glaciation were also the mountains of Scotland, the Alps, the Carpathians, and the Pyrenees. Glaciation was fourfold, continental glaciation was threefold.

Pleistocene glaciations had a diverse impact on nature. The centers of glaciation were predominantly areas of glacial drift. In the marginal areas, the glacier also formed water-glacial structures; the activity of mountain glaciers manifested itself in the creation of mountain-glacial relief forms. Under the influence of glaciers, restructuring took place. Over vast areas, glaciers destroyed flora and fauna and created new soil-forming rocks. Outside the glaciation period, the number of heat-loving species decreased.

The geological structures of Foreign Europe correspond to certain mineral complexes.

Inexhaustible resources of building stone are concentrated on the territory of the Baltic Shield and the Scandinavian Mountains; Ore deposits are located in the contact zones of the Scandinavian Mountains. and gas fields are relatively small and, as a rule, are confined to Paleozoic and Mesozoic sediments (Germany, adjacent zones of the North Sea), as well as to Neogene sediments of foothill and intermountain troughs of the Alpine folding (,). Various species are confined to the Hercynides zone. These are coals from the Upper Silesian, Ruhr, Saar-Lorraine basins, as well as from the basins of central England, Wales, Decazville (France), and Asturias (Spain). Large reserves of iron oolitic ores are located in Lorraine and. In the mid-altitude mountains of Eastern Germany (Asturias, Sierra) there are deposits of non-ferrous metals, and in Yugoslavia there are deposits of bauxite. The Permian-Triassic deposits of the mid-altitude Hercynian Mountains zone include deposits of potassium salts (western, France).

The largest uplifts of FENNOSCANDIA are the Scandinavian Mountains - a gigantic elongated arch, steeply plunging towards the ocean and gently sloping to the east. The tops of the mountains are smoothed, most often these are high plateaus (fjelds), above which individual peaks rise (the highest point is the city of Galhepiggen, 2469 m). In sharp contrast to the fjelds are the mountain slopes, in the formation of which faults played a large role. The western slopes are especially steep, dissected by systems of deep fjords and river valleys.

PLAIN FENNOSCANDIA occupies the east of the Baltic Shield - part of Finland. Its relief is modeled by Pleistocene glaciers. The highest position is occupied by the Norland Plateau (600-800 m), while most of the plains lie at an altitude of less than 200 m. Low ridges and ridges correspond to tectonic ridges and arches (Manselka, Småland). On the plains of Fennoscandia, glacial landforms are classically represented (eskes, drumlins, moraines).
The formation is associated with the development of the underwater North Atlantic Ridge. Most of the island consists of basalt plateaus, above which rise dome-shaped volcanic peaks covered with glaciers (the highest point is Hvannadalshnukur, 2119 m). The area of modern volcanism.

The mountains of the northern part of the BRITISH ISLANDS, tectonically and morphologically, can be considered a continuation of the Scandinavian mountains, although they are much lower (the highest point is Ben Nevis, 1343 m). Dissected by tectonic valleys that continue into bays, the mountains are replete with glacial as well as ancient volcanic covers that created the lava plateaus of Northern Ireland and Scotland. The south-east of Great Britain and the south-west of Ireland are classified as Hercynides.

The CENTRAL EUROPEAN PLAIN is located in a zone of syneclises of Precambrian and Caledonian structures. The overlapping of the foundation by a thick, undisturbed layer of Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments is the main factor in the formation of the flat relief. A major role in the formation of the flat relief was played by exogenous processes of the Quaternary period, in particular, glaciers, which left accumulative forms - terminal moraine ridges and outwash. They are best preserved in the east of the lowlands, which were subject to the Rissian and Würm glaciations.

The relief of Hercynian EUROPE is characterized by the alternation of mid-altitude folded-block massifs and ridges with lowlands and basins. The mosaic nature of the relief is determined by blocky and domed post-Hercynian movements, accompanied in some places by lava outpourings. Mountains created by arch movements belong to the massif type (Massif Central). Some of them (Vosges, Black Forest) are complicated by grabens. The horst mountains (Harz, ) have rather steep slopes, but are relatively small in height.

The flat areas within the Hercynian Europe are confined to syneclises of the folded basement, filled with a thick sequence of the Meso-Cenozoic (Paris, London, Thuringian, Swabian-Franconian basins) - stratified plains. They are characterized by a cuesta topography.

ALPINE EUROPE includes both high and large lowland foothill and intermountain plains. In terms of structure and relief, mountains belong to two types: young folded formations of Alpine age and folded-block formations, secondarily uplifted as a result of Alpine and neotectonic movements.

YOUNG FOLDED MOUNTAINS (Alps, Carpathians, Stara Planina, Pyrenees, Apennines, Dinara) are distinguished by lithological heterogeneity, alternating crystalline, limestone, flysch and molasse belts. The degree of development of the belts is not the same everywhere, which determines a unique combination of relief forms in each mountainous country. Thus, in the Alps and Pyrenees, Paleozoic crystalline massifs are clearly represented, in the Carpathians there is a well-defined strip of flysch deposits, and in the Dinaric Mountains - limestone ones.

FOLDED-BLOCK AND BLOCK MOUNTAINS (Rila, Rhodopes) are plateau-type massifs. Their significant modern height is associated with neotectonic movements. Valleys (Vardar, Struma) are confined to the lines of tectonic faults.

Alpine Europe - the Middle Danube, Lower Danube and others correspond to foothill troughs or are laid on the site of the lowered middle massifs of the Alpine geosyncline. They have a predominantly gently undulating topography, only occasionally complicated by small uplifts, which are protrusions of the folded foundation.

Relief of SOUTH EUROPE, including three large peninsulas(Pyrenean, Apennine, Balkan), very diverse. For example, in the Iberian Peninsula there are ALLUVIAL LOWS (Andalusian), YOUNG ALPINE MOUNTAINS (Pyrenees) and HIGHLANDS. The relief and geological structure of the Balkan Peninsula are varied. Here, along with young folded formations, ancient Hercynian massifs are found.

Thus, the relief of Foreign Europe is to a large extent a reflection of its structural structure.

Medical and health tourism remains one of the most promising directions in the tourism industry. The basis of its popularity in the 21st century is the victory of the preventive trend in modern medicine, as well as the fashion for a healthy body and a healthy mind. Foreign Europe is highly developed countries, where the best conditions are created for people. But natural resources are no less important for the development of medical tourism, so it is important to have a clear understanding of them.

Thus, the purpose of my research: consider and analyze the features of the natural conditions of Foreign Europe; determine its resort and recreational potential and the possibility of organizing recreational activities.

The goal requires the following: tasks:

1. Study natural resources Foreign Europe

2. Assessment of resources for recreational activities

3. Forecasting the further development of medical tourism in Europe

Object of study :

Foreign Europe

Subject of study:

Natural conditions(climate, inland waters, relief, landscapes); resources (forest, water, biological, minerals).

Research methods:

· Cartographic (analysis of information from climatic, geological, hydrological maps). Combining maps of air humidity and temperature allowed us to conclude that the climate of this area is comfortable for human health.

Comparative geographical

· Descriptive

· Statistical

Geology and morphology

Beyond the Baltic Shield, the foundation of the European Platform is submerged to a considerable depth and is covered by a complex of marine and continental rocks up to 10 km thick. In the areas of the most active subsidence of the plate, syneclises were formed, within which the Central European Plain and the Baltic Sea basin are located.

To the south and southwest of the European platform in the Archean era, the Mediterranean (Alpine-Himalayan) geosynclinal belt extended. To the west of the platform was the Atlantic geosyncline, bounded by the North Atlantic Land (Eria). Most of it subsequently sank into the waters of the Atlantic, with only small remnants surviving in the north of western Scotland and the Hebrides.

At the beginning of the Paleozoic, sedimentary rocks accumulated in geosynclinal basins. The BAIKAL FOLDING, which occurred at this time, formed small land masses in the north of Fennoscandia.

In the middle of the Paleozoic (end of the Silurian), the Atlantic geosyncline underwent strong mountain building (CALEDONIAN FOLDING). The Caledonian formations stretch from northeast to southwest, covering the Scandinavian mountains and the northern parts of Great Britain and Ireland. The Caledonides of Scandinavia sink into the waters of the Barents Sea and reappear in the western part of Spitsbergen.

Caledonian tectonic movements also manifested themselves partially in the Mediterranean geosyncline, forming there a number of isolated massifs, which were later included in younger folded formations.

In the Upper Paleozoic (mid and late Carboniferous), the entire Central and large parts of Southern Europe were captured by the HERCYNAN OROGENESIS. Powerful folded ridges formed in the southern part of Great Britain and Ireland, as well as in the central part of Europe (Armorican and Central French Massifs, Vosges, Black Forest, Rhine Slate Mountains, Harz, Thuringian Forest, Bohemian Massif). The extreme eastern link of the Hercynian structures is the Lesser Poland Upland. In addition, Hercynian structures can be traced on the Iberian Peninsula (Meseta massif), in certain areas of the Apennine and Balkan peninsulas.

In the Mesozoic, south of the Hercynian formations of Central Europe, a vast Mediterranean geosynclinal basin extended, captured by mountain-building processes in the ALPINE OROGENESIS (Cretaceous and Tertiary periods).

Folding and block uplifts, which led to the formation of modern alpine structures, reached their maximum development in the Neogene. At this time, the Alps, Carpathians, Stara Planina, Pyrenees, Andalusian, Apennine mountains, Dinara, Pindus were formed. The direction of the Alpine folds depended on the position of the middle massifs of Hercynian age. The most significant of them were in the western Mediterranean the Iberian and Tyrrhenian, in the eastern - the Pannonian massif, which lies at the base of the Middle Danube Plain and determined the double bend of the Carpathians. The southern bend of the Carpathians and the shape of the Stara Planina arc were influenced by the ancient Pontida massif, located on the site of the Black Sea and the Lower Danube Plain. The Aegean massif was located in the central part of the Balkan Peninsula and the Aegean Sea.

In the Neogene, alpine structures undergo vertical movements of the earth's crust. These processes are associated with the subsidence of some middle massifs and the formation in their place of depressions, now occupied by sections of the Tyrrhenian, Adriatic, Aegean, Black Seas or low accumulative plains (Middle Danube, Upper Thracian, Padanian). Other central massifs experienced significant uplifts, which led to the formation of such mountainous areas as the Thracian-Macedonian (Rhodope) massif, the mountains of Corsica, Sardinia and the Calabrian peninsula, the Catalan Mountains. Fault tectonics caused volcanic processes, which, as a rule, are associated with deep faults in the contact zones of the middle massifs and young folded ridges (the coasts of the Tyrrhenian and Aegean seas, the internal arc of the Carpathians).

Neotectonic movements that swept across Western Europe affected not only the structure and topography, but also led to climate changes. The Pleistocene was marked by glaciation, which repeatedly covered vast areas of plains and mountains. The main center of continental ice distribution was located in Scandinavia; the centers of glaciation were also the mountains of Scotland, the Alps, the Carpathians, and the Pyrenees. The glaciation of the Alps was fourfold, the continental glaciation was threefold.

FOREIGN EUROPE EXPERIENCED THREE GLACIES IN THE PLEISTOCENE: MINDEL, RISK AND WÜRM.

The activity of cover and mountain glaciers of the Middle Pleistocene (Ries) and Upper Pleistocene (Würm) glaciations had the greatest geomorphological significance. During the Rissky (maximum) glaciation, a continuous cover of glaciers reached the mouth of the Rhine, the Hercynids of Central Europe, and the northern foothills of the Carpathians. The Würm glaciation was much smaller in size than the Ris glaciation. It occupied only the eastern part of the Jutland Peninsula, the northeast of the Central European Plain and all of Finland.

Pleistocene glaciations had a diverse impact on nature. The centers of glaciation were predominantly areas of glacial drift. In the marginal areas, the glacier has formed accumulative and fluvio-glacial structures; the activity of mountain glaciers manifested itself in the creation of mountain-glacial relief forms. Under the influence of glaciers, a restructuring of the hydrographic network took place. Over vast areas, glaciers destroyed flora and fauna and created new soil-forming rocks. Outside the glaciation period, the number of heat-loving species decreased.

The geological structures of Foreign Europe correspond to certain mineral complexes.

Inexhaustible resources of building stone are concentrated on the territory of the Baltic Shield and the Scandinavian Mountains; Iron ore deposits are located in the contact zones of the Scandinavian mountains. Oil and gas fields are relatively small and, as a rule, are confined to Paleozoic and Mesozoic sediments (Germany, the Netherlands, Great Britain, adjacent areas of the North Sea), as well as to Neogene sediments of foothill and intermountain troughs of the Alpine folding (Poland, Romania).

The Hercynides zone is home to a variety of mineral resources. These are coals from the Upper Silesian, Ruhr, Saar-Lorraine basins, as well as from the basins of central Belgium, central England, Wales, Decazville (France), and Asturias (Spain). Large reserves of iron oolitic ores are located in Lorraine and Luxembourg. There are deposits of non-ferrous metals in the mid-altitude mountains of Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Spain (Asturias, Sierra Morena), and bauxite deposits in Hungary, Yugoslavia, and Bulgaria. The Permian-Triassic deposits of the mid-altitude Hercynian Mountains zone include deposits of potassium salts (western Germany, Poland, France).

The complexity of the geological structure of Foreign Europe led to the diversity of its relief, in the formation of which exogenous factors played a significant role, along with endogenous ones. The nature and degree of their manifestation largely depended on the paleogeographic conditions of the development of the territory and its lithological structure.

NORTHERN EUROPE is elevated and mountainous. It is composed of crystalline and metamorphic rocks of the Baltic Shield and Caledonides. Tectonic movements determined the fragmentation of its surface. Pleistocene glaciers and water erosion played a significant role in the creation of the relief.

The largest uplifts of FENNOSCANDIA are the Scandinavian Mountains - a gigantic elongated arch, steeply plunging towards the ocean and gently sloping to the east. The peaks of the mountains are smoothed, most often these are high plateaus (fjelds), above which individual peaks rise (the highest point is the city of Galkhepiggen, 2469 m). In sharp contrast to the fjelds are the mountain slopes, in the formation of which faults played a large role. The western slopes are especially steep, dissected by systems of deep fjords and river valleys.

PLAIN FENNOSCANDIA occupies the east of the Baltic Shield - part of the Scandinavian Peninsula and Finland. Its relief is modeled by Pleistocene glaciers. The highest position is occupied by the Norland Plateau (600-800 m), while most of the plains lie at an altitude of less than 200 m. Low ridges and ridges correspond to tectonic shafts and arches in the relief (Manselka, Småland). On the plains of Fennoscandia, glacial landforms are classically represented (eskes, drumlins, moraines).

The formation of the island of ICELAND is associated with the development of the underwater North Atlantic Ridge. Most of the island consists of basalt plateaus, above which rise dome-shaped volcanic peaks covered with glaciers (the highest point is Hvannadalshnukur, 2119 m). The area of modern volcanism.

The mountains of the northern part of the BRITISH ISLANDS, tectonically and morphologically, can be considered a continuation of the Scandinavian mountains, although they are much lower (the highest point is Ben Nevis, 1343 m). Dissected by tectonic valleys that continue into bays, the mountains are replete with glacial landforms, as well as ancient volcanic nappes that created the lava plateaus of Northern Ireland and Scotland.

The south-east of Great Britain and the south-west of Ireland are classified as Hercynides.

The relief of Hercynian EUROPE is characterized by the alternation of mid-altitude folded-block massifs and ridges with lowlands and basins. The mosaic nature of the relief is determined by blocky and domed post-Hercynian movements, accompanied in some places by lava outpourings. Mountains created by arch movements belong to the massif type (Massif Central). Some of them (Vosges, Black Forest) are complicated by grabens. The horst mountains (Harz, Sudetes) have rather steep slopes, but relatively low heights.

The flat areas within Hercynian Europe are confined to syneclises of the folded foundation, made by a thick Mesozoic-Cenozoic strata (Paris, London, Thuringian, Swabian-Franconian basins) - stratified plains. They are characterized by a cuesta topography.

ALPINE EUROPE includes both high mountain systems and large lowland foothill and intermountain plains. In terms of structure and relief, mountains belong to two types: young folded formations of Alpine age and folded-block formations, secondarily uplifted as a result of Alpine and neotectonic movements.

FOLDED-BLOCK AND BLOCK MOUNTAINS (Rila, Rhodopes) are plateau-type massifs. Their significant modern height is associated with neotectonic movements. River valleys (Vardar, Struma) are confined to the lines of tectonic faults.

ACCUMULATIVE PLAINS of Alpine Europe - the Middle Danube, Lower Danube and others correspond to foothill troughs or are laid on the site of subsided middle massifs of the Alpine geosyncline. They have a predominantly gently undulating topography, only occasionally complicated by small uplifts, which are protrusions of the folded foundation.

The relief of SOUTH EUROPE, which includes three large peninsulas (Iberian, Apennine, Balkan), is very diverse. For example, in the Iberian Peninsula there are ALLUVIAL LOWS (Andalusian), YOUNG ALPINE MOUNTAINS (Pyrenees) and HIGHLANDS. The relief and geological structure of the Balkan Peninsula are varied. Here, along with young folded formations, ancient Hercynian massifs are found.

Thus, the relief of Foreign Europe is to a large extent a reflection of its structural structure.

Climate

Foreign Europe is located mainly in the temperate climate zone. The annual radiation balance is positive: from 10 kcal/cm2 in the north of Scandinavia to 60 kcal/cm2 in the south in the Mediterranean. Due to its proximity to the Atlantic, the western transport is dominated by sea air. Continental air masses penetrate from the east. The northern regions are subject to intrusions of arctic air, which in winter breaks through to the Alps and Pyrenees. Southern Europe is influenced by tropical masses; in summer they can penetrate as far as the south of Scandinavia.

The atmospheric circulation in Europe in winter is determined by the Icelandic minimum, located in the North Atlantic, and the Siberian maximum, which gives a spur towards Foreign Europe. High pressure typical for the Arctic. Thus, the regional circulation, associated with quasi-stationary and seasonal centers of atmospheric action, joins the planetary circulation here. Differences in the physical properties of air masses determine the formation of fronts. Precipitation largely depends on cyclonic activity on fronts. In January, the main paths of the polar front cyclones pass over the north of the British Isles, the south of Scandinavia, the Baltic, and the Mediterranean Sea.

In winter, the transfer of air from the ocean to land and the warming influence of the North Atlantic Current soften the climate. Positive temperatures prevail over Foreign Europe. The January zero isotherm runs from southwest Norway (Bergen) through the Jutland peninsula and Berlin to Belgrade. Its direction serves as one of the expressions of the role warm waters Atlantic. To the west of the zero isotherm, average January temperatures are positive. Almost all of Fennoscandia and the east of Foreign Europe lie within the range of negative January temperatures.

The predominant westerly transport of air saturated with moisture over the Atlantic and cyclonic activity lead to heavy precipitation (mainly in the form of rain). They are especially large in the west of Scandinavia and the British Isles, the western parts of which are the first to encounter Atlantic air masses.

Snow cover is established, as a rule, annually on the plains east of the Bergen-Hamburg-Vienna-Belgrade line. In the north of Fennoscandia, its duration reaches 6-7 months and is reduced to 1-2 months in its southern regions and in the east of the Central European Plain. On the Danube plains there is snow for 3-4 weeks. In France, the British Isles, and the northern Mediterranean, although snow falls, it quickly melts, lingering in the mountains.

The westerly transport of air masses is not constant. It is best expressed north of the Pyrenees, Alps and Carpathians. For example, in winter in the northern part of Scandinavia, southwestern winds are 50-40% in frequency (Finland - northern Sweden) and 35% in Poland, decreasing further to the south. In the northern and eastern parts of Foreign Europe, cloudy weather with moderate frosts prevails in winter. In the British Isles, the meadows turn green at this time, but wet snow occasionally falls, which is often replaced by cold rains. The eastern part of the Central European Plain is characterized by stable snow cover; It reaches its greatest thickness (60-80 cm) in northern Sweden.

The Siberian anticyclone disappears in summer; The Azores Maximum, which covers Southern Europe with its eastern periphery, acquires the greatest development. The Icelandic baric minimum is weakly expressed. In summer, the transformation of air masses occurs very intensively; The weather north of the Alps is variable, making it very difficult to predict.

The thermal regime in summer is determined mainly by radiation factors, so summer isotherms have a direction close to the latitude. In the northern parts of Fennoscandia the isotherm is +15°C, and in the south of Europe +25°C.

The territory of Foreign Europe is well moistened. Precipitation falls mainly in the form of rain, the largest amount (1000-2000 mm) falls on the windward western slopes of the mountains of Scandinavia, the British Isles, the Alps, the Apennine and Dinaric mountains. As you move east, the moisture content in the air, and therefore the amount of precipitation, decreases to 400 mm in the interior of Fennoscandia, in the east of the Balkans and southeast of the Iberian Peninsula.

The distribution of precipitation across the seasons is uneven. The Atlantic regions are well moistened throughout the year (maximum precipitation in winter). This is explained by the activation of the Icelandic cyclone during the cold season. As one moves eastward, the maximum precipitation shifts to the summer months; rain also falls during intramass convection at this time. In Southern Europe, maximum precipitation occurs in winter as a result of cyclonic activity on the polar front.

Coastal areas are overly wet Western Europe and those inland areas where, with relatively small amounts of precipitation but low temperatures, evaporation is small (eastern Fennoscandia). The degree of moisture in the center and east of the Iberian Peninsula, the east of the Apennine and Balkan Peninsula, and certain areas of the Danube plains is insufficient. The remaining areas have moderate moisture.

Foreign Europe is located within 4 climatic zones: arctic, subarctic, temperate and subtropical. From west to east, two types of climate are distinguished within the zones: maritime and continental. The isoamplitude of 250 between the average July and average January temperatures is conventionally taken as their boundary.

Svalbard, Jan Mayen and Bear Islands are located in the ARCTIC BELT. Arctic air masses dominate throughout the year. Temperatures are low, even in summer they are rarely above +5°. Precipitation is 300 - 350 mm due to cyclones on the Arctic front.

THE SUBARCTIC BELT covers the island of Iceland and the far north of Scandinavia. The climate is formed under the influence of Atlantic cyclones and belongs to the marine type. Located in the center of the Icelandic Low, the island has a mild climate with temperatures in January ranging from +1 to -3°, the warmest up to +10°. Cloudy days with fog predominate. Precipitation is 1000 mm per year.

IN THE TEMPERATE ZONE polar air dominates all year round. Arctic air often penetrates into the northern regions, and tropical air into the southern regions. Due to differences in radiation conditions, the northern regions have cool summers and cold winters, while the south has warm summers and mild winters. Two types of climate are clearly expressed: marine and continental. Marine is typical for the west coast of Scandinavia, Ireland and Great Britain. There is more precipitation and moderate temperatures (July +12, +15°, January - about 0°). Continental climate is expressed in most of Fennoscandia. There is a long (6-7 months) winter with average January temperatures from -8 to -16°, cool summers (+12°- +16°), low (400-500 mm) precipitation with a summer maximum.

Between areas with maritime and continental climates there is a zone with a transitional type of climate.

In the southern part of the temperate zone, summer temperatures increase noticeably and winters are milder. There are northern - boreal (cooler) and southern - subboreal (warmer) regions of the temperate zone. Boreal climate features appear on the Danube plains and in the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula. There is little precipitation here (400-600 mm).

In the subtropical zone are the Iberian, Apennine and Balkan peninsulas (without the northern outskirts), the southern coast of France. In summer, tropical air masses dominate.

Average July temperatures are from 20 to 28°. In winter, cyclones from the Atlantic invade the Mediterranean, bringing heavy rainfall.

The average temperature in January is from +4 to +10°. There are two types of climate in the belt: marine and continental. The first is typical for the western, the second - for the southern and eastern regions of the Iberian, Apennine and Balkan peninsulas. The differences in types are mainly in precipitation: the western regions receive up to 1000-1500 mm, the eastern - 400-500 mm.

The climate of mountainous regions is more diverse than that of plains. Mountain regions are distinguished by vertical climatic zones, which are most pronounced in the Alps.

Inland waters

Based on the feeding regime and morphology of river valleys, a number of river types are distinguished.

1) The Norwegian type includes rivers on the well-moistened western slopes of the Scandinavian mountains. These are short streams, often cascading down steep slopes. The pools are small, the food mode is snow and rainwater. Flood in summer, low water in winter. Rivers don't freeze. Important sources of hydropower.

2) The Swedish type is characteristic of rivers on the eastern slopes of the Scandinavian mountains (Dalelven, Kemijoki). They have poorly developed valleys with features of glacial erosion. Snow food. Flood in summer, low water in winter. Rapids alternate with lake-like extensions. The rivers freeze for almost six months. Used for timber rafting and energy production.

3) Finnish type - rivers of Finland. These are most often short channels between lakes, flowing flush with the banks. They are fed by snow and rain, and there is high water in the spring, but the lakes serve as flow regulators. Timber rafting.

4) Atlantic type - rivers of Central Europe (Thames, Severn, Shannon, Scheldt, Somme). Uniform rain nutrition throughout the year. They are full of water, rarely freeze, flow in well-developed valleys, and have slight slopes. Shipping.

5) Polish type - rivers of the eastern part of the Central European Plain (Vistula, Odra). Snow food. Maximum in spring, low water in summer. They freeze for 2-3 months. They have well-developed valleys, slow flows, and strongly meander. Connected by a system of channels. Shipping.

6) Hercynian type - rivers originating in the mid-altitude Hercynian mountains (Weser, Main, Moselle). Characterized by double flood and double low water. Winter low water is caused by the establishment of snow cover in the mountains, the melting of which in the spring causes floods. Summer rain supply is weaker than spring snow supply, so in summer the level decreases. The fall in temperatures in autumn, together with a decrease in evaporation, contributes to the appearance of a second flood. They have deep and narrow valleys, large slopes, and significant flow speeds. Energy sources.

7) Alpine type - rivers starting in the glaciers of the Alps (upper Rhine, Rhone, upper Po). The food is predominantly glacial. Maximum in summer. They have a steep stepped channel profile and waterfalls. Energy reserves.

8) Mediterranean type - rivers of Southern Europe (Tiber, Arno, etc.). The mode reflects the uneven distribution of precipitation. Winter rains cause floods; in summer, the flow is reduced, i.e. characterized by rain nutrition, sometimes supplemented by underground (in karst areas). Irrigation.

The largest river in Foreign Europe is the Danube (2850 km). According to the feeding regime and morphology, the valley is divided into three parts: the upper course - from the source to Vienna, the middle - from Vienna to the Iron Gate gorge, the lower - from the Iron Gate to the mouth. It originates in the Black Forest mountains at an altitude of 678 m. In the upper reaches it is a mountain river, full-flowing when the snow melts. The Bavarian Plateau receives a number of tributaries from the Alps. Here the Danube flows on high banks; high water occurs in July-August. Navigation begins at Regensburg (Germany), where there is a canal connecting the Danube with the Rhine. A number of reservoirs.

From Vienna the valley changes dramatically. The channel widens, the speed drops, the banks become lower. From the Devín (Moravian) Gate it is almost a flat river with a wide floodplain and numerous oxbow lakes. Lots of meanders and branches. In its middle reaches, the Danube receives large tributaries - the Tisa, Sava, and Drava. At the Iron Gate the riverbed narrows; a hydraulic junction - Djerdap - was built here.

In its lower reaches, the Danube is a typically flat river. It receives tributaries from the Carpathians (Prut, Siret), they do not affect the regime of the Danube. At the mouth, the river is divided into three branches - Sulinskoye, Georgievskoye, Kiliyskoye. Through the first - shipping. Great economic importance. The Danube is a transport artery of European countries. Large ships go up to Vienna.

The second most important river is the Rhine (1320 km). It originates in the Alps and is characterized by a typical alpine regime, with a summer maximum. Lake Constance serves as a flow regulator. At its exit near the city of Schaffhausen, the river forms the Rhine Falls, 24 m high. Below, the Rhine flows in the graben between the Black Forest and the Vosges. Here the Rhine receives its first major tributary, the Aare River, the main river of the Swiss plateau (the capital is Bern).

Below the city of Basel there is a middle current. The waters are heavily polluted. The tributaries Neckar, Sieg, Lahn, Main, and Moselle have a decisive influence on the regime, which here has features of the Hercynian type.

Upon leaving the Rhine Slate Mountains, the Rhine is a flat river, the waters flow flush with the banks. In the Netherlands, the banks are protected by dams from rushing water onto the polders.

The Rhine is connected by a system of canals with the Danube, Rhone, Marne, Weser, and Elbe. In terms of cargo turnover, the Rhine ranks first in Foreign Europe. The total length of waterways in the Rhine system is 3000 km.

Other large rivers in Europe are the Loire, Elbe, and Vistula (each about 1000 km long).

The lakes are unevenly distributed. Their largest accumulation is confined to the areas of Quaternary glaciations (Fennoscandia, Central European Plain). Lake basins were formed as a result of processing and deepening of tectonic cracks by glaciers. The largest lakes in Northern Europe are of tectonic-glacial origin: Vänern, Vättern, Mälaren, Elmaren, Inari.

Dammed lake basins in areas of glacial accumulation with flat, swampy shores and small sizes - Müritz, Snyardwy, Mamry.

In the foothills of the Alps there are terminal glacial lakes - Como, Garda, Lago Maggiore, Firvaldstetskoe. Tectonic lakes - Geneva, Constance, Neuchâtel, on the Balkan Peninsula - Shkoder, Ohrid, Prespa, on the Apennine - Fucino, Trasimenskoe, in Hungary - Balaton.

Volcanic lakes located in the calderas of extinct volcanoes - Bolsena, Vico, Bracciano, in the Moselle basin - the Eifel Maars.

The most powerful glaciers are located on Spitsbergen, Iceland and the Scandinavian mountains, the southernmost glaciers are in the Sierra Nevada mountains.

Soils

europe climatic river geographical

A narrow strip of tundra soils (rocky tundra) extends to the far north of Europe. A larger area of mountain-tundra soils stretches across the summit plateaus of the Scandinavian Highlands. Tundra soils dominate in Iceland.

The podzol zone is much more widely represented in Western Europe. It covers all of Finland, most of Scandinavia, Poland, part of northern Germany, Denmark, and the northern regions of the British Isles. In Finland and Scandinavia, podzols everywhere alternate with bog and semi-bog soils. On the slopes of the Scandinavian highlands, covered with coniferous forests, mountain-podzolic soils are developed, as well as in the Carpathians and partly in the Alps.

In Central Europe, typical podzols turn into yellow-podzolic soils and wedge out. They are replaced here by a zone of forest brown soils, the most typical soils of Central and part of Southern Europe. Burozems - soils temperate climate and medium leaching. What is remarkable for them is the content of “clay substance”, coherence and coarse lumpy composition.

In the high-mountain humid and cold zone of the Alps, mountain-meadow peaty and humus-crushed soils are developed; On the upper slopes of the mountains, especially on the northern slope, mountain-podzolic soils predominate; on the lower slopes, and most of all on the southern slope of the Alps, mountain-brown earth and humus-carbonate soils predominate.

Forest brown soils are widespread in the Atlantic part of Central Europe - in France and the British Isles.

Chernozem soils cover the Lower Danube and Middle Danube lowlands, the latter mainly in its eastern part. In the western region of this lowland, forest brown soils are already observed. The foothills of the Carpathians are partly covered with degraded (leached) chernozems and gray forest loams.

The soils of Southern Europe are very diverse. In Middle-earth, the red soil type predominates. Red soils are replaced by transitional soil types, such as yellow soils and dry red soils. In addition, dry brown soils develop significantly in drier areas, especially in mountains. Dry red soils and dry brown soils, very characteristic of Middle-earth with its hot, dry summers, are associated with associations of light, hard-leaved evergreen forests typical of the region.

According to some researchers, red soils in Middle-earth are observed especially on limestones. On the other hand, in mountainous areas, dark-colored chernozem-like soils, such as humus-carbonate soils, are often formed on limestones. The higher and wetter mountainous areas of Middle-earth are covered with broad-leaved forests and are characterized by the development of typical forest brown soils.

Animal world

The fauna of Western Europe reveals close connections with vegetation and is equally complex distribution and origin. The Western European fauna includes various elements, partly local, but mainly moved here from other continents, especially from Asia. The Western European fauna also contains genera and species common to America. The fauna of Western Europe is included in the Palaearctic zoogeographical region, belonging to two of its subregions - the Euro-Siberian and the Mediterranean. The inclusion of Central and Northern Europe in the European-Siberian subregion is due to the fact that elements of the taiga fauna of North Asian origin currently play a predominant role here. The Mediterranean fauna has a different character, with big amount endemic species and with an admixture of African and Mountain Asian forms.

The fauna of the tundra is represented in the north of Scandinavia and Iceland. Here you can find reindeer, arctic fox, lemming, mountain hare, ptarmigan and tundra partridge, snowy owl, and polar gyrfalcons. “Bird colonies” are very characteristic of the rocky coasts and islands of Scandinavia and Scotland, where seagulls, guillemots, auks, guillemots, loons, fulmars, and eiders nest in large numbers. Until recently, large great auks were found along the coasts of the North Atlantic.

The fauna of the taiga is confined to the coniferous forests of Northern and Central Europe, also penetrating into the area of deciduous forests, where it mixes with the fauna of local and southern origin. Typical taiga animals common in Europe: squirrel, mountain hare, forest lemming, marten, elk, roe deer, brown bear; Birds include wood grouse, hazel grouse, crossbills, three-toed woodpeckers, thrushes, finches, eagles and many marsh and waterfowl (waders, wild ducks).

The fauna of broadleaf forests is highly diverse and has many local forms. Characteristic species include red deer and roe deer, wild boar, wild forest cat, brown hare, and tree-dwelling forest rodents - dormouse. Fox, badger, ferret, mink, and hedgehog are common. The bird fauna is very rich, which includes black grouse, gray partridge, green woodpecker, roller, jay, oriole, thrushes, nightingales, storks, red kites, eagles, owls, pigeons, finches. Compared to the taiga, amphibians and reptiles, as well as lower animals, in particular insects and terrestrial mollusks, are much more diverse.

The mountainous regions of Central and part of Southern Europe (Alps, Carpathians, Pyrenees, Balkans) have their own high-mountain fauna, mainly originating from the mountains of Western and Central Asia. Here you can find chamois, mountain goats (in the Alps and Pyrenees), alpine marmot, alpine jackdaws, mountain partridges, mountain finches, and eagles. In the coniferous forests of these mountains there are quite a lot of taiga species, such as brown bear, squirrel, and mountain hare. Capercaillie, hazel grouse, woodpeckers (in the Alps - three-toed woodpecker) and others.

The greatest originality and richness of animal species in Europe is characteristic of the fauna of the Mediterranean region. Of the large mammals, the fallow deer (endemic to Middle-earth), mouflon (mountain sheep - in Sardinia and Corsica), and local subspecies of red deer are typical for it. In southern Spain (9on the Rock of Gibraltar) lives the only European monkey (tailless macaque), which came here from the mountains of northern Africa. Numerous in Middle-earth the bats, including large southern forms such as horseshoe bats and longwings. In addition to the macaque, other natives of Africa are typical for Spain, such as the small predator civet geneta, Spanish ichneumon, and porcupine (the latter is also found in Sicily). In places in Middle-earth (in mountain forests Balkan Peninsula and Spain) there is still a bear of a special type, small size, dun color. There are lynxes and jackals on the Balkan Peninsula. Wild rabbits and native hare species are found in abundance in Spain. Weasels, Tuscan shrews, Spanish muskrats and others are endemic to Middle-earth. There are many endemic, some relict, species and southern forms in the world of birds. Interesting, for example, is the beautiful blue magpie, found in Spain, and also in Japan and China. Characteristic are mountain partridges, rollers, bee-eaters, hoopoes, pigeons, southern species of nightingale, cuckoo, stone sparrow and many others; Of the predatory species there are numerous vultures. Reptiles are very diverse and abundant, with many southern and endemic forms, such as the gecko lizard Ichamelion; of snakes - snakes, grass snakes, Mediterranean viper; then - types of land turtles, like the Greek tortoise, common in Greece, including many islands. The world of invertebrate animals, in particular insects, and arborescent snails, is especially rich and unique. Of the beetles, there are numerous species of ground beetles, flying fireflies are interesting; Among hemipterans, cicadas are typical; Orthoptera are abundant, including mantises typical of the region.

Among other arthropods, scorpion species are numerous and characteristic. Interesting freshwater crabs are found in southern Italy, Sicily and Greece.

Geographical zones and zones

The nature features of geographical zones in Foreign Europe are determined by its position in the oceanic sector of the continent of the Arctic, subarctic, temperate and subtropical zones.

THE ARCTIC BELT occupies the island outskirts. Low radiation balance values (less than 10 kcal/cm2 per year), negative average annual temperatures, and the formation of a stable ice cover over a large area. Spitsbergen is located in the Western European sector of the belt.

Its climate is softened by the warm West Spitsbergen Current. Relatively large amounts of precipitation (300-350 mm) and low annual temperatures contribute to the accumulation of thick layers of snow and ice. The ICY DESERT ZONE predominates. Only a narrow strip on the western and southern coasts is occupied by Arctic STONEY DESERT (about 10% of the area of Spitsbergen). In places where fine earth accumulates, saxifrage grows, snow buttercup, polar poppies, Svalbard carnations. But lichens (lichens) and mosses predominate. The fauna is poor in terms of species: polar bears, arctic foxes, lemmings, the musk ox was introduced. In summer there are extensive bird colonies: guillemots, loons, gulls.

THE SUBARCTIC BELT covers the far north of Fennoscandia and Iceland. The radiation balance reaches 20 kcal/cm2 per year, average temperatures in the summer months do not exceed 10°C. There is no woody vegetation. The dominant zone is the TUNDRA ZONE. There are northern - typical and southern tundra. The northern one does not have a closed vegetation cover; areas with vegetation alternate with patches of bare soil. Mosses and lichens (moss moss) dominate; shrubs and grasses rise above them. Plants do not have time to go through the entire development cycle from germination to seed ripening in a short summer. Therefore among higher plants Biennials and perennials predominate. Due to low temperatures, physiological dryness. On dry hills, reindeer moss (Jagel tundra), buttercups, saxifrage, poppies, partridge grass (Drias), some sedges and grasses. Shrubs - blueberries, lingonberries, cloudberries.

Southern (shrub) tundra is characterized by a predominance of shrubs and shrubs: dwarf birch, polar willow, wild rosemary, bearberry, lingonberry, crowberry. In depressions (weak winds) there are thickets of dwarf birch (ernik) 1.0 - 1.5 m high.

Soils develop under waterlogged conditions. They are characterized by the accumulation of coarse humic organic matter, the development of gley processes, and an acid reaction. Peat-gley soils predominate.

In Iceland, in the coastal lowlands and valleys, oceanic grass-forb meadows with anemones and forget-me-nots are common, under which meadow-turf soils are formed. In some places there are clumps of low-growing trees: birch, rowan, willow, aspen, juniper.

The animal world is poor. Typical: Norwegian lemming, arctic fox, ermine, wolf, polar owl, ptarmigan, from swamps - geese, geese, ducks.

Reindeer husbandry, in Iceland - sheep breeding.

THE MODERATE BELT occupies most of Northern and all of Central Europe. The radiation balance ranges from 20 kcal/cm2 per year in the north to 50 kcal/cm2 per year in the south. Western transport and cyclonic activity contribute to the supply of moisture from the ocean to the mainland. Average January temperatures range from -15° in the northeast to +6° in the west. Average July temperatures range from +10° in the north to +26° in the south. Forests dominate. In the Atlantic sector, when moving from north to south, zones of coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests replace each other. In the southeastern part, the zone of broad-leaved forests is pinched out and replaced by zones of forest-steppe and steppe.

THE CONIFEROUS FOREST ZONE occupies most of Fennoscandia (southern border at 60°N) and the north of Great Britain. The main species are Norway spruce and Scots pine. The plains of Sweden are dominated by swampy spruce forests on heavy loams. A significant part of Fennoscandia is occupied by pine trees on dry rocky or sandy soils. Forest cover exceeds 60%, reaching 80% in places, and up to 35% in Norway. In the west of the Scandinavian Peninsula, in place of cleared forests, meadows and heaths are common.

Altitudinal zones are developed in the mountains. Coniferous forests on slopes up to 800-900 m in the south and 300 m in the north. Further there is open birch forest up to 1100 m. The upper parts of the mountains are occupied by mountain tundra vegetation.

In the coniferous forest zone, thin acidic podzolic soils, poor in humus, predominate. In the depressions there are peat-bog and gley-podzolic soils with low fertility.

The fauna is diverse: moose, wolves, lynxes, brown bears, foxes. Birds: hazel grouse, partridges, wood grouse, owls, woodpeckers.

Scandinavian countries- the most wooded in Foreign Europe. Forest plantations on drained peat bogs are widely developed. Livestock farming for meat and dairy production has been developed. The structure of crops on cultivated lands is subordinated to it. Agriculture is developed in a limited area. In the north of the zone there is reindeer husbandry, in the mountains there is sheep breeding.

THE MIXED FOREST ZONE occupies small areas in the southwest of Finland, partly the Central Swedish Lowland and the northeast of the Central European Plain. Among the species appear pedunculate oak, ash, elm, Norway maple, and heart-shaped linden. The undergrowth has abundant herbaceous cover. Zonal soils are soddy-podzolic - up to 5% humus.

The fauna is richer than in coniferous forests: elk, bear, European roe deer, wolf, fox, hare. Birds: woodpeckers, siskins, tits, black grouse.

Forest cover is up to 20%, the largest tracts are preserved in the Masurian Lake District. Agricultural production.

The broad-leaved forest zone occupies the southern part of the temperate zone. Warm summers, a mild climate, and a favorable ratio of heat and moisture contribute to the spread of predominantly beech and oak forests. The richest forests in terms of species are confined to the Atlantic part. Here the forest-forming species is chestnut. In the undergrowth there is holly oak and berry yew. Beech forests are usually monodominant, dark, and the undergrowth is poorly developed. In transitional climates, beech is replaced by hornbeam and oak. The oak forests are light, with hazel, bird cherry, rowan, barberry, and buckthorn growing in the undergrowth.

Along with forest vegetation, in the zone of broad-leaved forests there are formations of shrubs - heathers on the site of cleared forests (European heather, juniper, gorse, bearberry, blueberry, blueberry). Heather heaths are characteristic of northwestern Great Britain, northern France, and the west of the Jutland Peninsula. On the Baltic and North Sea coasts, large areas are occupied by pine and pine-oak forests on dunes.

Vertical zonality is most represented in the Alps and Carpathians. The lower slopes of the mountains up to 600-800 m are occupied by oak-beech forests, giving way to mixed ones, and from 1000-1200 m - spruce-fir forests. The upper border of the forest rises to 1600-1800 m, above which there is a belt of subalpine meadows. At an altitude of 2000-2100 m, alpine meadows with brightly flowering herbs grow.

The main type of soil in deciduous forests is forest brown soil (up to 6-7% humus), which has high fertility. In more humid places, podzolic-brown earths are common, and on limestones - HUMUS-CARBONATE (RENDZINS).

Red deer, roe deer, wild boar, bear. Small ones include squirrel, hare, badger, mink, and ferret. Birds include woodpeckers, tits, and orioles.

Forests in the zone make up 25% of the area. Indigenous oak and beech forests have not survived. They were replaced by secondary plantations, coniferous forests, wastelands, and arable lands. Reforestation work.

FOREST-STEPPE ZONES have a limited distribution and occupy the Danube plains. Almost no natural vegetation has been preserved. On the Middle Danube Plain, in the past, areas of broad-leaved forests alternated with steppes (pushta), now the plain is plowed. Chernozem soils, favorable climatic conditions contribute to the development of agriculture, horticulture, and viticulture.

On the Lower Danube Plain, where there is less moisture, the landscapes are close to the Ukrainian and South Russian steppes. Zonal soil type - leached chernozems. In the eastern parts they are replaced by dark chestnut soils, also plowed.

The SUBTROPICAL BELT is somewhat smaller in area than the temperate one. Radiation balance 55-70 kcal/cm2 per year. In winter, the belt is dominated by polar masses, and in summer by tropical masses. Precipitation decreases from coastal areas inland. The consequence is a change in natural zones not in the latitudinal, but in the meridional direction. Horizontal zoning is complicated by vertical zoning in the mountains.

The southern part of Foreign Europe is located in the Atlantic sector of the belt, where the climate is seasonally humid, Mediterranean. Minimum precipitation in summer. Under conditions of prolonged summer drought, plants acquire xerophytic characteristics. The Mediterranean is characterized by a ZONE OF EVERGREEN LEAF FORESTS AND SHRUBS. Oak dominates in forest formations: in the western part cork and stone, in the eastern - Macedonian and Walloon. They are mixed with Mediterranean pine ( Italian, Aleppo, seaside) and horizontal cypress. In the undergrowth are laurel, boxwood, myrtle, cistus, pistachio, and strawberry tree. Forests have been destroyed and have not been regenerated due to grazing, soil erosion, and fires. Shrub thickets have become widespread, the composition of which depends on the amount of precipitation, topography, and soils.

In a marine climate, MAKVIS is widespread, which includes shrubs and low (up to 4 m) trees: tree heather, wild olive, laurel, pistachio, strawberry tree, juniper. The bushes are intertwined with climbing plants: multi-colored blackberries, mustachioed clematis.

In areas of the continental climate of the western Mediterranean on rocky mountain slopes with intermittent soil cover widespread GARRIGA - sparsely growing low shrubs, subshrubs and xerophytic herbs. Low-growing thickets of garrigue are widely found on the mountain slopes of southern France and the east of the Iberian and Apennine peninsulas, where shrubby kermes oak, prickly gorse, rosemary, and orchard tree predominate.

The Balearic Islands, Sicily and the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula are characterized by palmito thickets, formed by a single wild palm chamerops with a short trunk and large fan leaves.

In the interior parts of the Iberian Peninsula, the TOMILLARY formation is developed from aromatic subshrubs: lavender, rosemary, sage, thyme in combination with herbs.

In the eastern Mediterranean, FRIGANA is found on dry rocky slopes. It includes astragalus, spurge, gorse, thyme, and acantholimon.

In the east of the Balkan Peninsula, in conditions of hot summers and rather cold winters, SHIBLJAK predominates, formed mainly by deciduous shrubs: barberry, hawthorn, thorn, jasmine, rose hips. The southern ones are mixed in with them: dwarf tree, mackerel, wild almond, pomegranate.

Evergreen subtropical vegetation is confined to the plains and lower parts of the mountains up to a height of 300 m in the north of the zone and 900 m in the south. Deciduous broad-leaved forests grow up to an altitude of 1200 m: downy oak, sycamore, chestnut, silver linden, ash, walnut. Often pine grows in the middle mountains: black, Dalmatian, coastal, armored. Higher up, with increasing humidity, dominance passes to beech-fir forests, which from 2000 m give way to conifers - Norway spruce, white fir, Scots pine. The upper belt is occupied by shrub and herbaceous vegetation - juniper, barberry, grasses (bluegrass, bromegrass, white grass).

In the zone of evergreen hard-leaved forests and shrubs, brown and gray-brown soils (up to 4-7% humus) with high productivity are formed. On the weathering crust of limestones, red-colored soils develop - TERRA ROSS. Mountain-brown leached soils are common in the mountains. There are podzols suitable only for pastures.

The fauna has been greatly exterminated. Among mammals there are civet genet, porcupine, mouflon sheep, fallow deer, local species of red deer. Reptiles and amphibians predominate: lizards (gecko), chameleons, snakes, snakes, vipers. Rich world of birds: griffon vulture, Spanish and rock sparrow, blue magpie, mountain partridge, flamingo, rock thrush .

High population density. Plowed lands are confined to coastal plains and intermountain basins. Main crops: olives, Walnut, pomegranate, tobacco, grapes, citrus fruits, wheat.

Western European The lowland stretches in a narrow strip from east to southwest from the Vistula River to the Iberian Peninsula. It enters both the peninsulas of the Baltic Sea and the British Isles.

From the north it is washed by the Baltic and North Seas, from the west by the Atlantic Ocean.

In the south, the Western European Lowland is surrounded by low mountains, destroyed and flattened in some places to the height of hills. These “old” mountains stretch in Germany (Rhine Mountains, Fig. 35), and in France, and on the Iberian Peninsula. Throughout their length they are very rich in fossils, especially iron and coal. These old mountains are cut by rivers flowing into the North, Baltic and Black Seas. Along river valleys, fossil riches come to the surface of the earth, and they are easy to mine there. There are a lot of rivers here. The largest of them: Danube, Rhine And Vistula.

The Danube and the Rhine begin very close to each other, with a high chain of young snow-capped mountains - Alps. Starting on the slopes of the Alps, the Rhine and Danube flow in different directions. The Rhine flows north and enters the North Sea opposite the British Isles. The Danube flows east and empties into the Black Sea within the USSR. This is the longest river in Western Europe. third river, Vistula, begins with another chain of young mountains in Europe - with Carpathians and flows through highlands and lowlands, meandering now to the east, now to the west. It flows into the Baltic Sea. Two rivers of our Union originate in the Carpathians: Dniester, flowing into the Black Sea, and Rod, a tributary of the Danube. With the annexation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to the USSR, the Dniester River flows almost entirely through our country, and our border with Romania runs along the Prut River.

1. Find the Western European Lowland on the map.

2. Find the sources of the Rhine, Danube and Vistula and trace the flow of these rivers in ink on an outline map.

3. Along the upper reaches of these rivers, look for hills and low mountains (yellow in physical map) - old mountains of Europe.

4. Color them in on the outline map with a yellow pencil.

5. Learn to answer where the Rhine, Danube and Vistula flow from and where they flow.

Throughout southern Europe, from the Iberian Peninsula to the Caspian Sea, brown stripes and spots stretch across the map. This is a long chain of high, “young”, as yet little destroyed mountains. This is a huge fold of the earth's crust. It was formed much later than those old, destroyed mountains that adjoin the Western European Lowland. Therefore, the sun, frost, wind and water have not yet had time to destroy their rocky peaks and smooth out their sharp ribs. The highest of these mountains are covered with snow and ice. They give rise to fast streams. Streams merge together in gorges and form wide rivers in the valleys. Below their slopes are covered with grass (mountain meadows); even lower they were overgrown with dense forests.

The main riches of these mountains are meadows, forests and “white coal”, i.e. the fast flow of mountain rivers, which provides electrical energy at hydroelectric stations. There are few fossils in the young mountains. This high range of young mountains of southern Europe is divided into several ridges. Let's start from the west.

Pyrenees mountains(or Pyrenees) separate the peninsula from the mainland. The border between France and Spain runs along them (Fig. 36). The glaciers in the Pyrenees are small, and few rivers flow from them.

To the east of the Pyrenees rise the highest mountains in Europe - Alps. This is a series of mountain ranges up to 4 kilometers high. Many of their peaks are covered with glaciers (Fig. 37). Many rivers of Western Europe originate here (remember the Rhine and Danube). These rivers flow through gorges and mountain valleys in all directions. Then they flow through the lowlands, crossing France, Italy, Germany and other states. The Alps have beautiful mountain meadows below the glaciers, and forests even lower. There are few fossils in them.

To the north of the Balkan Peninsula, wooded mountains curved in a semicircle on the map Carpathians. River Danube and its tributaries go around them, forming wide fertile valleys (Fig. 38). A lot of oil is produced in the foothills of the Carpathians.

After the connection of Western Ukraine with Soviet Union part of the northern slopes of the Carpathians, along the border with Hungary, went to the USSR.

1. Find the Pyrenees, Alps and Carpathians on a map of Europe.

2. Compare their heights by color: which mountains are the tallest?

3. Color in all the listed mountain ranges on the outline map with a brown pencil.

IN Eastern Europe(i.e. in the USSR) ridge high mountains continues through the Black Sea to the Crimean Peninsula and the Caucasus.

Crimean the mountains are not high. Their peaks are rocky. Only in winter they are covered with snow. Almost no rivers flow from them; some flow only in the spring, when the snow melts on the peaks, and then dry up. No minerals are mined in the mountains; only on the eastern cape of the peninsula there is iron (Kerch).

Caucasian the mountains are high (up to 5.5 kilometers), covered with glaciers, cut by gorges and valleys with noisy rivers. There are many forests on them, and higher up there are meadows. Along their eastern and northern foothills are the richest oil production areas in Europe. Silver is found in the mountains. Rivers provide cheap energy.

1. Color in the mountains of the Caucasus and Crimea on the contour map.

2. Find on the map the rivers flowing from the Caucasus Mountains.

General information. The area of Europe is about 10 million km 2, incl. the islands account for about 730 thousand km 2 (the largest are Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, Spitsbergen, Iceland, Ireland, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Crete), the peninsulas account for about 1/4 of the territory of Europe (Scandinavian, Iberian, Apennine , Balkan, Kola, etc.). Population: about 700 million people (1980). The extreme continental points of Europe: in the north - Cape Nordkin, 71°08" north latitude; in the south - Cape Marroqui, 36°00" north latitude; in the west - Cape Roca, 9°31" west longitude; in the east - the eastern foot of the Polar Ural near Baydaratskaya Bay, 67°20" eastern longitude of Europe, it is washed by the seas and: in the north and north-west - the Kara, Barents, White and Norwegian; in the west - the Baltic and Northern; in the south - the Mediterranean, Marmara, Black and Azov, in the east and the southeast, the border with is most often drawn along the eastern foot of the Urals, along the Emba River to the Caspian seas , the Kuma and Manych rivers to the mouth of the Don.

In Europe, it is customary (from a physical-geographical point of view) to distinguish Eastern Europe (mostly European territory) and Western Europe (mainly foreign Europe), which, in turn, is divided into Northern, Central, and Southern Europe. Over 1/2 of the territory of Europe is occupied by the USSR (Eastern Europe), the rest - Andorra, Vatican City, Great Britain, Gibraltar, Denmark, West. Berlin, Ireland, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Monaco, the Netherlands, San Marino, part of Switzerland, .

The modern political map of foreign Europe has developed as a result of fundamental socio-political changes caused by the victory of the Great October Socialist Revolution in Russia, the defeat of the fascist powers in World War II of 1939-45 and the victory of people's democratic and socialist revolutions in a number of countries of foreign Europe. As a result, two groups of countries with fundamentally different socio-economic systems were formed in Europe: socialist (so-called Eastern European countries), which, along with the USSR, includes Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Albania , and capitalist (Western European), which includes other countries.

Nature. The topography of Europe is dominated by lowland plains and hills; mountains occupy 17% of Europe's territory. The smoothest terrain is in eastern Europe, where there is a vast Eastern European (Russian)a plain, the southeastern part of which (Caspian Lowland) is below sea level. In Western Europe, where plains and mountains occupy approximately the same area, the main plains areCentral European, Middle Danube, Lower Danube, Paris Basin, Padan. For Northern , Western and Central Europe and the peninsulas of Northern and Southern Europe are characterized by low and middle mountains. Among them stands out big number ancient massifs; Armorican, Central French, Czech, etc. The most significant mountains are the Alps (height up to 4807 m, Mont Blanc), Carpathians, Pyrenees, Scandinavian, Apennines, mountains of the Balkan Peninsula. The Urals stretches along the eastern border of Europe. Often referred to as Europe. The active ones are mainly in the Mediterranean and Iceland, where active activity is associated with manifestations of modern volcanism.

The climate is predominantly temperate, in the west it is oceanic, with mild winters and cool summers, in the east it is continental, with snowy, frosty winters and hot or warm summers. The northern regions and Arctic islands have a harsh subarctic and arctic climate. Southern Europe has a Mediterranean climate, with mild, humid in winter and hot summer. The average temperature in January is from -24° C on the Arctic islands to +12° C in the south, in June, respectively, in the west up to 29° C. Precipitation per year ranges from 1500-2000 mm (in some places more) in the mountains, up to 200 mm or less on the Caspian lowland; The aridity of the climate generally increases from northwest to southeast. In most of Europe, precipitation occurs mainly in the warm half of the year, in the Mediterranean - mainly in winter. The glaciation area is over 116 thousand km 2, the main centers of glaciation are the Arctic islands, Iceland, the Scandinavian mountains, and the Alps.

On the plains of Europe, calm-flowing rivers predominate, among them the Volga (the largest in Europe), the Dnieper, Don, Pechora, Northern Dvina, Danube, Vistula, Odra, Elbe, Rhine, Seine, Loire, Rhone, Tagus, Po. All of these rivers are navigable, some are connected by canals, and many are used for hydroelectric purposes. In Fennoscandia, short rapids rivers with weakly developed valleys with lake-like extensions predominate; in mountainous areas, rivers have a large drop, and there are waterfalls. The largest lakes in Europe are Ladoga, Onega, Wenern, Chudskoye, Balaton, Geneva.

The flora and fauna of Europe belongs to the Holarctic kingdom. On islands Arctic OceanArctic deserts are developed; on the mainland, tundras, forest-tundras, forests (taiga, mixed and broad-leaved), forest-steppes, and steppes alternate from north to south; in southern Europe - subtropical Mediterranean forests and shrubs, in the southeast - semi-deserts. In the highest mountain systems (Alps, Carpathians and some others) there is an altitudinal zone with a consistent change from bottom to top of mountain forests, meadows and landscapes of the nival zone. A large area is dominated by cultural landscapes. There are numerous nature reserves, national parks and other protected areas.

Geological structure and metallogeny. The ancient core of the European continent is occupied by its northern and eastern parts, with a foundation of Archean-Early Proterozoic age (see map).

From the northwest, the tectonic nappes of the Scandinavian Caledonides, composed of riftogenic formations of the upper Riphean - Vendian, eu- and miogeosynclinal strata of the Cambro-Silurian, are thrust onto the East European platform; At the base of the innermost covers, relics of the crust of the Proto-Atlantic Ocean or its marginal sea are known. These nappes have undergone noticeable metamorphism; they are unconformably overlain by Devonian clastic sediments (molasse), filling individual grabens. To the north, the Scandinavian Caledonides continue towards Western Spitsbergen, and to the southeast - the British Isles. The British Caledonides are significantly different in structure from the Scandinavian ones; they have two main zones: the northwestern (northern highlands of Scotland), metamorphic, and the southeastern (southern highlands of Scotland, northern England and Wales), non-metamorphic. The first, thrust in the northwest, towards the Precambrian platform massif in northwestern Scotland and the Hebrides, is composed of Riphean-Vendian and Cambro-Lower Ordovician strata, which experienced major deformations, metamorphism and granitization in the Early Ordovician (Grampian phase); the second is characterized by a gradual weakening of dislocations to the southeast, in the direction of the platform massif of the Midlands of England, composed of Cambro-Silurian rocks, underlain by ophiolites in the north, deformed at the end of the Silurian - beginning of the Devonian. In the south of Ireland and England, the outer zone of the Central European Hercynides is thrust onto the Caledonides, and to the east, onto the Midland massif; on the continent, the northern front of the Hercynides stretches through northeastern France, Belgium, Germany, the German Democratic Republic to Poland (Odra line), hiding further under the Alpine thrusts of the Carpathians, and is accompanied in a number of areas by forward troughs (Franco-Belgian and Ruhr, as well as the Upper Silesian coal basin ).

The Hercynides occupy a significant area within Central Europe and the Iberian Peninsula. Their outer zone is composed of thick Devonian clay-shale and Lower Carboniferous flysch and was deformed in the Middle Carboniferous. The outer zone is separated by a narrow rise of the metamorphic base from the inner one, the section of which is formed by sandy-shale deposits of the Ordovician-Silurian, as well as shale or carbonate strata of the Devonian - Lower Carboniferous. The age of the deformations is the beginning and middle of the Carboniferous. In the Central zone, stretching through the south of Brittany and the Vendee into the Central French Massif, Vosges, Black Forest to the Bohemian (Bohemian) Massif, rocks of the metamorphic complex of the late Precambrian appear on the surface, including in places the lower Paleozoic and host Middle and Late Paleozoic age. This zone experienced the first deformations in the Devonian and the final ones before the Middle Carboniferous. Its analogue, and initially, probably, a western continuation, is the Central Iberian zone with a northwestern - southeastern strike. To the southeast of it, analogues of the external and internal zones of the Central European Hercynides are developed, to the north-west, as well as to the south of the Central zone of Central Europe, a similar sequence of zones is observed, but with a southern (on the Iberian Peninsula - north-eastern) direction of displacement along thrusts Within the Hercynides, a large number of intermontane troughs and depressions of medium and small size are known, filled with continental coal-bearing deposits of the Middle and red-colored strata of the Upper Carboniferous and Permian with the participation of volcanics.

Between the southwestern edge of the East European ancient platform and the northern front of the Hercynids, partially overlapping them, there is a vast and deep Central European depression (mega-syneclise), which continues in the northwest into the North Sea, where its constituent rocks unconformably overlie the Caledonides. Within the continent, the depression apparently has a foundation of different ages - Caledonian, Baikal, and in some places, possibly even more ancient. In its modern contours, the Central European Basin formed in the Permian and experienced intense subsidence in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. Due to the development of the Middle Permian salt-bearing strata, the so-called. Zechstein, numerous salt domes arose in the depression. The depression is oil and gas bearing, especially within the North Sea. Smaller depressions, usually called basins, which arose in the late Paleozoic, were superimposed on the internal parts of the Hercynian fold system. The most significant of them are the Paris and Aquitaine basins containing deposits and.

In southern Europe, the Hercynides are overlain by the Alps, which include the Pyrenees, Alps, Carpathians, Balkans, as well as the Andalusian Mountains (Cordillera-Betica), Apennines and Dinaric Mountains. The Alpine geosyncline arose on the Hercynian foundation, fragmented and overlain by carbonate Triassic, in the process of stretching and spreading of the continental crust, which led at the end of the Triassic - beginning of the Jurassic to the new formation of a basin with oceanic-type crust, now appearing as part of ophiolite nappes. The formation of the latter began at the end of the Jurassic, with the first compression pulses, and continued in subsequent eras of deformation, up to the Miocene, and in some places even later. As a result, the Alpine structures acquired a very complex ridge structure, with thrusting in the Alps, Carpathians and Balkans, as well as in the Cordillera-Betica to the north, in the Apennines and Dinarides - Hellenids - towards the Adriatic Sea, in the Pyrenees - to the north and south. In front of the fold-cover structures, forward troughs were formed - Pre-Pyrenees, Pre-Alpine, Pre-Carpathian, etc., and in their rear - back and intermountain troughs, of which the largest is Pannonian, common to the Carpathians and Dinarides. All of them are made of thick clastic (molasse) strata of Oligocene-Neogene age. The formation of most of the depressions that now make up the Mediterranean Sea - Algerian-Provence, Tyrrhenian, Adriatic, Aegean, which absorbed individual parts of the Alpine structures, also dates back to the Oligocene-Miocene. At the same time, the Western European rift system arose, including the Rhine and Rhone grabens. At the same time, an outbreak of volcanic activity occurred, affecting not only the Alpine belt (the periphery of the Tyrrhenian basin, the Pannonian and Aegean basins), but also the epi-Hercynian platform (the Central French and Czech massifs, the Rhine and Rhone grabens, etc.).

The Caledonian metallogeny of Europe was most clearly manifested in the Scandinavian geosynclinal-fold belt in Norway and Great Britain. On early stage geosynclinal regime here, in connection with basaltoid volcanism, numerous pyrite-polymetallic deposits arose in Norway and Sweden. At a later stage, in connection with granitoid magmatism, hydrothermal polymetallic and gold ore deposits were formed, known, for example, in Great Britain.

The Hercynian metallogeny is most typical of the Central European Hercynides. An early stage is distinguished with basaltoid magmatism, accompanied by minor magmatic deposits of titanomagnetites and large pyrite-polymetallic deposits of the Rio Tinto type in Spain. At a later stage, in connection with granitoid magmatism, numerous hydrothermal deposits of non-ferrous metal ores arose. The metallogeny of the activated sections of the platform is clearly manifested in the form of belts of alkaline rocks with rare metal and apatite mineralization of the Kola Peninsula of the USSR and Norway. The largest Lower Rhine-Westphalian and Donetsk coal basins belong to the Hercynian stage of geological history.

Alpine metallogeny manifested itself within the Caucasus-Balkan-Mediterranean belt. The early stage of the Alpine stage is characterized by copper-pyrite deposits of the Caucasus, Carpathians, and partly the Alps; the late, orogenic stage is characterized by skarn and hydrothermal deposits of tungsten and molybdenum ores, gold, lead and porphyry copper deposits. Among the sedimentary geosynclinal formations of the Alps there are large deposits of the Mediterranean bauxite province, and sedimentary deposits of iron and manganese are found.

Along the front of the geosynclinal-folded belts of the Caledonides, Hercynides and Alps of Europe there are forward troughs of the corresponding age, containing deposits of oil, gas, salts, sulfur (Pre-Carpathian trough).

Minerals of foreign Europe. On the territory of foreign Europe there are large deposits of oil and gas, and , , and some others (see map, see table).

Among other continents, foreign Europe ranks 1st in the world in terms of reserves, 2nd in coal reserves, gas fields of the Po River Valley in Italy, and the Gela and Ragusa fields on the island of Sicily (Italy). A sharp turn in exploration work in foreign Europe occurred in 1959 after the discovery of one of the world's largest gas fields - Groningen (Slochteren) in the Netherlands. Active geological prospecting and exploration began in the North Sea, which led to the discovery of a number of large and major offshore oil and gas fields in the UK, the Netherlands, Norway and Denmark. In total, 21 are known within foreign Europe with a total area of about 2800 thousand km.

Most of the basins are associated with areas of development of platforms of different ages (Precambrian East European, Baikal-Caledonian Central European and Hercynian Western European). total area platform-type basins 1,400 thousand km 2. The remaining basins are associated with the area of development of Alpine folded mountain structures and zones of their articulation with platforms. The overwhelming majority of oil and gas reserves are concentrated in Europe's largest Central European oil and gas basin (the North Sea), as well as in the Pre-Carpathian-Balkan oil and gas basin, the Aquitaine oil and gas basin, the Adriatic-Ionian oil and gas basin, and partly in the Baltic oil and gas region. The main productive horizons are confined to Phanerozoic deposits.

Among the countries of foreign Europe, Albania, Bulgaria, Great Britain, Hungary, East Germany, Greece, Denmark, Ireland, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, France, Germany, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia have proven oil and gas reserves. The most significant reserves are in the UK and Norway. At the beginning of 1983, 752 oil and 804 gas fields were discovered in foreign Europe. Of these, the Groningen gas field is gigantic, 47 fields (26 oil and 21 gas) belong to the category of large and largest (oil reserves from 50 to 500 million tons, gas reserves from 50 to 500 billion m 3), the remaining fields are medium-sized and small ones. The largest fields in the socialist countries: oil fields - Moreni-Gura-Ocnice (Romania), Aldieu (Hungary); gas - Salzwedel-Pekkensen (GDR), Przemysl-Jaksmanice (Poland). The main proven hydrocarbon reserves (over 80%) are concentrated at a depth of 1 to 3 km; the interval of 3-5 km contains 17% of the reserves.

The total reserves of all types of coal in foreign Europe are estimated at 873 billion tons, reliable reserves at 243 billion tons, of which about 642 billion tons are hard coals and 230 billion tons are brown coals (1983). The largest reserves among European countries are located in Germany, Great Britain, Yugoslavia, Poland, East Germany (brown coal), Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria (brown coal), Romania, France. Significantly smaller reserves are concentrated in the Netherlands, Greece (mainly brown coal), Spain, Belgium, Austria (brown coal). Most of the deposits of hard coal are associated with Carboniferous deposits and are confined mainly to the Namurian and Westphalian stages of the Carboniferous (Belgium, Bulgaria, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Great Britain, Germany, France). The largest coal basins are the Lower Rhine-Westphalian (Ruhr), Saar, Aachen, Krefeld (Germany), South Wales, Yorkshire, South and North Scotland (Great Britain), Lorraine, Nord-Pas-de-Calais (France), Upper Silesian, Lublin (Poland), Ostrava-Karvinsky (Czechoslovakia), Dobrudzhansky and others (NRB), Spitsbergen (Norway). The deposits of the Asturian Coal Basin (Spain) are confined to deposits of Upper Carboniferous age. As an exception, there are minor coal deposits in the Permian and Jurassic formations (France, Great Britain). The thickness of individual coal seams is from 1 to 3 m; the total thickness reaches 84 m (Germany). The quality of coals is predominantly good, they have a high calorific value; these are bituminous coals, anthracites, coking coals (Great Britain, Germany). In the Lorraine coal basin (France), the coals are mainly fatty, long-flame. Coals of the Asturias Basin are predominantly gas (volatile component content up to 45%); coals of similar composition are mined in deposits in Belgium and the Netherlands. Large basins and deposits of brown coals and lignites of Eocene-Pliocene age are known: Magdeburg, Middle German, Lower Lausitz (GDR), North Bohemian and Sokolovsky (Czechoslovakia), East Maritsky (NRB), Muntenia, Comanesti (SRR), Krekansky and Kolubarsky ( SFRY), Lower Rhine (Germany), Ptolemais, Megalopolis (Greece), Köflach-Voitsberg basins (Austria). The quality of coals varies.

The deposits belong to various industrial-genetic types. There are numerous hydrothermal deposits of vein or veinlet-disseminated type in granites. These include part of the deposits of France (Limousin, Morvan, Forez, Chardon, etc.), Spain (La Virgen, Monasterio, Albarran, Esperanza, etc.), some deposits of the GDR, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. The ores of such deposits contain U from 0.14% to a few percent. Some deposits occur in Upper Paleozoic crystalline rocks. Part of the reserves is concentrated in stratiform sedimentary and sedimentary-infiltration deposits located in Permian sandstones (Le Brugeau, Le Bois Noir, Lodève in France). Deposits in metamorphic rocks enriched in carbonaceous material are of great importance (for example, Ciudad Rodrigo in the province of Salamanca in Spain with an ore content of up to 0.15% U). A special position is occupied by deposits in black shale (up to 0.10% U) - Ranstad et al. (Sweden). Minor deposits containing 0.1-0.5% U have also been identified in Italy (Prite), Portugal (Urjeirika, etc.), Germany (Mentzenschwandt), Switzerland (Emme-Iflis), Great Britain (Mainland).

Ferrous metal ores. The main reserves of iron ore are contained in -magnetite deposits associated with Precambrian crystalline rocks -

Geography of Europe
Click to enlarge

From a strict geographical point of view, Europe is not actually an independent continent, but is part of the continent of Eurasia, which also includes Asia. However, Europe is still often seen as a continent in its own right.

The European continent, which has access to a large number of bodies of water, is separated from Asia by the Ural Mountains in Russia, as well as the Caspian and Black Seas. The continent is separated from Africa by the Mediterranean Sea.

Mountains and plains of Europe

Alps

Located in south-central Europe, these mountains stretch over 1,100 kilometers in length, starting from the coast of southern France (near Monaco), through Switzerland, northern Italy and Austria, then through Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and ending in Albania off the Adriatic coast.

Known for its spectacular scenery, glaciers, lakes and valleys, as well as the most better conditions on the planet for skiing, the Alps are the source of many rivers and tributaries, including the Danube, Po, Rhine, and Rhone.

The highest point is Mont Blanc (4,807 m).

Apennines

The Apennine Mountains, where almost all of Italy's rivers originate, including the Arno, Tiber, and Volturno, are 1,350 km long, they are the core of Italy, and stretch along the entire length of the Apennine (Italian) Peninsula, ending on the island of Sicily.

The highest point is Corno Grande (2,914 m).

Balkan mountains

These mountains begin in Serbia and extend throughout Bulgaria. Some spurs of this mountain system pass through the territory of Albania, Greece, and Macedonia.

The most famous mountain in this mountain system is Olympus, the highest and most impressive mountain in Greece, its height is 2,918 m.

Great Hungarian Plain (Alfeld)

Located in the south-eastern part of Europe, and surrounded by mountains, this plain contains several small forests and several large meadows. Its average height above sea level is only 100 meters, and conditions here are often dry, so snow flows from the Alpine and Carpathian mountains in winter are of great importance for the plain.

Carpathians

This mountain range, located in Eastern Europe, is the source of several rivers: the Dniester, Tisza, and Vistula. They form a natural border between Slovakia and southern Poland, and extend far south into Ukraine and Romania.

The highest point is Gerlachovsky Štit, in northern Slovakia, height – 2,655 m.

Meseta

The Meseta (also called the Iberian Meseta, or Castilian Highlands) covers almost half of the entire territory of Spain. This high plateau is located at a distance of 700 m above sea level in the north, and 600 m above sea level in the south.

The plateau is surrounded by several mountain ranges, including the Cantabrian Mountains, the Sierra de Gata, and Sierra de Guadarrama in the north, and the Sierra Morena and Sierra Nevada in the south. These mountains separate Meseta from the Costa Verde, the Ebro Valley, the Mediterranean Sea, and Andalusia.

Pyrenees

The Pyrenees stretches from the Bay of Biscay (in the west) to the Gulf of Lyon (in the east).
To the south of the mountains is Spain, to the north is France, and inside the mountain range itself is Andorra.
NASA Images
Click to enlarge

These mountains form the natural border between France and Spain, and stretch over 400 km in length, from the Bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean Sea. The highest point is Aneto Peak (3,404 m).

Scandinavian mountains

This jagged mountain system stretches along the eastern border of Norway and the western part of Sweden. The highest point is Kebnekaise (2,123 m).

Central European Plain

The fertile lands of the Central European Plain extend north and northeast of the Alps, all the way to the Baltic Sea, and into Denmark, southern Finland, Norway, and Sweden. To the east, the plain extends to Russian territory and beyond, with a total length of over 4,000 km.

These lands are generally flat, with a small number of hills, and this also includes the Central Russian Upland. Agriculture is widespread on the plain, and all around there is a large number of agricultural communities.

Massif Central

This mountain range in southwestern France is the source of the Allier, Creuse, and Loire. Its approximate size is 85,001 sq. km, the highest point is Puy de Sancy (1,885 m).

Rivers of Europe

Hundreds of rivers and their tributaries flow across the European continent. The longest of them (over 900 km long), as well as the most famous and remarkable, will be listed below.

Volga

The Volga is the largest river in the European part of Russia. It flows through central Russia, and is considered the national river of Russia. Its length is 3,692 km.

Dnieper

Rising in southwestern Russia, the river flows south through Belarus, then southeast through Ukraine, before emptying into the Black Sea. The total length is 2,285 km.

Originating in southwestern Russia, south of Moscow, the river flows southeast to the Volga River before turning sharply west to empty into the Sea of Azov. The total length is 1,969 km.

Danube

Originating in the Black Forest region of Germany, this river flows through Central Europe, in countries such as Austria, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia, Slovenia, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia. The river forms the border between Romania and Bulgaria, then flows through the territory of Romania into the Black Sea.

The river is 2,850 km long and is one of the most significant trade waterways on the continent.

Loire

Recognized as France's longest river, the navigable Loire River begins at the foot of the Massif Central, then flows north and west along central France before emptying into the Bay of Biscay. Length – 1,020 km.

Audra

Rising in the mountains of eastern Czech Republic, the river flows west and north through south-central Poland, eventually emptying into the Baltic Sea. Length – 912 km.

Italy's longest river begins in the Alpine peaks, flows from west to east along northern Italy, and ends in the Adriatic Sea. Its length is 652 km.

Rhine

Originating in the mountains of southeastern Switzerland, this legendary river flows west to form Switzerland's northeastern border with Germany, then heads due north into western Germany, where it forms that country's border with France, and then cuts through the Netherlands, ending in the North Sea.

Numerous tributaries of the river flow in all directions, the total length of the river is 1,319 km.

Rona

Rising high in the Swiss Alps, this fast-moving river flows through Lake Geneva before heading south through southeastern France before emptying into the Mediterranean Sea.

Small tributaries of the river flow in all directions, the total length is 485 km.

Tacho

The Tagus River rises in the central highlands of Spain, then flows southwest through Portugal, then south to Lisbon, where it empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Its length is 1,007 km.

Shannon

Rising in the north-west of Ireland, the river flows through several lakes before turning west and eventually emptying into the Atlantic Ocean. Length – 370 km.

Elbe

Originating in the Czech Republic, the Elbe River flows north through Germany and into the North Sea near the city of Cuxhaven. Its length is 1,165 km.

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