The meaning of ZERO FLEXION in the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms

ZERO FLEXION

An ending that is not materially expressed and is distinguished in a word by comparison with the correlative forms in which it is materially represented.

In the noun student, in relation to the forms of indirect cases student, student, etc., students, students, etc., a zero ending is allocated, indicating the nominative case singular form.

In the combination pair of boots, the second word, but in relation to other forms of its paradigm (boot, boot, etc., boots, boots, etc.) distinguishes in its composition the zero ending of the genitive plural.

In the short adjective new, in relation to the forms of other genders and the plural nova, novo, novy, the zero ending of the singular masculine is distinguished. The zero ending in possessive pronoun ours (in comparison with the forms ours, ours, ours). IN verb form read, the zero ending is highlighted, indicating the masculine gender (in comparison with the forms read, read, read). Zero endings go back to endings that were once materially expressed, and appeared as a result of the phonetic loss of reduced vowels (ъ) and (ь) at the end of words (cf. Old Russian stol, chital, pain - in last wordь was a graphic sign denoting a reduced vowel of the front-middle row of the middle rise).

Dictionary of linguistic terms. 2012

See also interpretations, synonyms, meanings of the word and what ZERO FLEXION is in the Russian language in dictionaries, encyclopedias and reference books:

• FLEXION in Medical terms:
  (flexio; Latin "bending", from flecto, flexurn to bend) see Flexion ...
• FLEXION
  (from Latin flexio - bending) (ending) part of a word expressing grammatical meanings during inflection (declension, ...
• FLEXION
  (from Latin flexio v bending, bending), an indicator of a complex of grammatical categories expressed in inflection; the inflection system itself, which uses such indicators; ...
• FLEXION V Encyclopedic Dictionary Brockhaus and Euphron:
  (gram., from Latin flexio = bending, movement). — This term in linguistics refers to different types changing words or roots, with...
• FLEXION in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  and, f. 1. physiol. Bending limbs or other body parts; opposite extension.||Avg. ABDUCT, ADDUCT. 2. linguistic Changing with...
• FLEXION in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  , -i, w. In grammar: a part of a word that changes with declension or conjugation, located at the end of the word form. II adj. inflectional, oaya, ...
• FLEXION
  FLEXION (from Latin flexio - bending) (ending), part of a word expressing grammatical. meanings during inflection (declension, ...
• ZERO in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  ZERO ENERGY, the difference between the energy of the main. states of quantum mechanical system and energy corresponding to the minimum potential of the system. Existence AD - purely quantum...
• ZERO in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  NULL HYPOTHESIS, the initial assumption in mathematics. statistics, which must be confirmed or refuted using probability theory. Used for statistical purposes. ...
• FLEXION in the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedia:
  (gram., from Latin fleхio = bending, movement). ? This term in linguistics denotes different types of changes in words or roots, with ...
• FLEXION in the Complete Accented Paradigm according to Zaliznyak:
  flexion, flexion, flexion, flexion, flexion, flexion, flexion, flexion, flexion, flexion, flexion, flexion, …
• FLEXION in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary.
• FLEXION
  (Latin flexio - bending, transition). Same as ending...
• FLEXION in the Thesaurus of Russian Business Vocabulary:
  Syn: ...
• FLEXION in the New Dictionary of Foreign Words:
  (lat. flexio bending, bending) 1) physiol. flexion, for example, of a limb, torso, etc. (opposite extension); 2) linguistic ending, …
• FLEXION in the Dictionary of Foreign Expressions:
  [ 1. physiol. flexion, for example, of a limb, torso, etc. (opposite extension); 2. lingua, ending, the last part of a word, changing when ...
• FLEXION in the Russian Language Thesaurus:
  Syn: ...
• FLEXION in the Russian Synonyms dictionary:
  Syn: ...
• FLEXION in the New Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language by Efremova:
  1. g. The final part of a word that changes with declension or conjugation; ending (in linguistics). 2. g. Flexion (at...
• FLEXION in the Complete Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  inflection...
• FLEXION in the Spelling Dictionary:
  flexion, ...
• FLEXION in Ozhegov’s Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  In grammar: the part of a word that changes with declension or conjugation, located at the end ...
• FLEXION in Dahl's Dictionary:
  gram. , lat. changes in the ending of a word, according to declensions and ...
• FLEXION in Modern explanatory dictionary, TSB:
  (from Latin flexio - bending) (ending), part of a word expressing grammatical meanings during inflection (declension, ...
• FLEXION in Ushakov’s Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  inflections, w. (Latin flexio, lit. bending, bending) (lingual). a way of forming words by changing endings. || The thing that changes with declination...
• FLEXION in Ephraim's Explanatory Dictionary:
  inflection 1. g. The final part of a word that changes with declension or conjugation; ending (in linguistics). 2. g. Flexion (at...
• FLEXION in the New Dictionary of the Russian Language by Efremova:
  I The final part of a word that changes with declension or conjugation; ending (in linguistics). II Flexion (at...
• FLEXION in the Large Modern Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  I A formal component of a word form (usually the final part of a word), changing with declension or conjugation and expressing inflectional ...
• ZERO DEGREE OF WRITING in the Dictionary of Postmodernism:
  (Bart) - see ZERO...
• ZERO DEGREE in the Dictionary of Postmodernism.
• ZERO ENERGY in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  the difference between the energy of the ground state of a quantum mechanical system and the energy corresponding to the minimum potential of the system. The existence of zero-point energy is a purely quantum effect...
• NULL HYPOTHESIS in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  an initial assumption in mathematical statistics that must be confirmed or refuted using probability theory. Used in statistical testing of hypotheses,...
• INTERNAL FLEXION in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  inflection, the expression of grammatical meanings by changing the composition of the root. For example, Russian "collect" - "collect", German. ziehen ("dragged") - zogen ("dragged"), ...
• ZERO FORM in the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms:
  The general name for the absence of forms, which acquires grammatical meaning by contrast with similar positively expressed forms. see zero copula, zero inflection …
• FUNNY PEOPLE! in Quote Wiki:
  Data: 2009-03-16 Time: 17:52:07 * Easy, easy! Bass? don't push! * There is nothing worse, gentlemen, if you have a drink and a snack...
• Smeshariki in Wiki Quotebook:
  Data: 2009-08-06 Time: 14:45:54 = Character phrases = * Krosh: Christmas trees and needles! * Losyash: Phenomenal! * Nyusha: Well...
• DOUGLAS COPELAND in the Wiki Quotebook:
  Data: 2009-07-02 Time: 22:25:34 Douglas Copeland (b. 1961) is a Canadian writer. =Generation X= =Slogans= *The sun is your enemy. *Fly by plane...
• BART in the Newest Philosophical Dictionary:
  (Barthes) Roland (1915-1980) - French literary critic, structuralist philosopher. Founder of the Center for the Study of Mass Communications (1960), professor Practical school higher knowledge (1962). ...
• FOCALIZATION in the Dictionary of Postmodernism:
  (French focalization - focusing) - a term proposed by the French literary theorist J. Genette (work "Figures III", 1972); means the organization expressed in the narrative...
• in the Dictionary of Postmodernism:
  ("Totalitе et Infini. Essai sur l"Extеrioritе", 1961) - a monograph of Levinas's doctoral dissertation, published in The Hague. The publication of this book ...
• BODY WITHOUT ORGANS in the Dictionary of Postmodernism.
• SIMULACRA AND SIMULATION in the Dictionary of Postmodernism:
  - an essay by Baudrillard ("Simulacres et simulation". Paris, 1981), which is, on the one hand, an attempt to generalize his previous theoretical developments, A …
• POSTSTRUCTURALISM in the Dictionary of Postmodernism.
• THE DECLINE OF METANARRATIONS in the Dictionary of Postmodernism:
  (or “the decline of great narratives”) is the paradigmatic foundation of postmodern philosophy, which consists in the refusal to fix priority forms of description and explanation along with ...
• BLANCHOT in the Dictionary of Postmodernism:
  (Blanchot) Maurice (b. 1907) - French philosopher, writer, literary critic. Main works: “The Space of Literature” (1955), “Lautréamont and the Garden” (1963), “Endless...
• BART in the Dictionary of Postmodernism:
  (Barthes) Roland (1915-1980) - French literary critic, structuralist philosopher. Founder of the Center for the Study of Mass Communications (1960), professor of the Practical School of Higher Knowledge (1962), ...
• SCHIONALYSIS in the Lexicon of non-classics, artistic and aesthetic culture of the 20th century, Bychkova.
• LETTER
  (French ecriture) One of the central concepts modern theory literature and art, which became such thanks to the research of R. Barth, where it takes three ...
• BART in the Lexicon of non-classics, artistic and aesthetic culture of the 20th century, Bychkova:
  (Barth) Roland (1915-1980) French esthetician, critic, semiotician, philosopher, culturologist. The evolution of his views allows us to distinguish three stages. On the first, in the 50s...

There are many words with a zero ending; they have a zero ending in the nominative case, but change when declined.

Eg:

fear (zero ending) - fear (ending -a-), wolf - wolf, steppe - steppe,

pain-pain

brother - brother, to understand that there is a zero ending, it is enough to change the word by number or cases.



Examples of null endings:

• secretary;
• help;
• calculator;
• magazine;
• life;
• groom;
• batteries;
• lazy person;
• a curtain;
• great-grandfather;
• came;
• Firefly;
• carried out;
• volt;
• composer;
• water pipes;
• nightingale;
• thistle;
• ant.

• Examples of words with a zero ending can be the following: move, union, watermelon, year, city, fruit, bridge, mouse, wounded, order, husband, table, matchmaker, brother, nose, meadow, leaf, toddler, sock, slipper, elk , elephant, hero, night, handsome and so on.

  Examples of nouns with a zero ending, usually these are words of the 2nd or 3rd declension, for example:

  lilac, execution, compote, chair, telephone, engine, backpack, stove.

  It is worth noting that the zero ending in other case forms becomes materially expressed. Compare:

  lilac - zero ending,

  lilac - ending I;

  compote - zero ending,

  compote - ending OM.

  Examples of verbs with zero endings, a large layer of such words are words of the masculine past tense indicative mood, For example:

  came in, finished, ran across, poured out, ran, looked in, jumped over, drank, finished, etc.

  Examples - fox, tasks, walked, oven.

  There are certain rules that govern the definition of a null ending. This rule is taught already in the third grade and it sounds like this

  We remember the declension gender, number, case, what influence they have on the formation of the ending.

  

  Examples of words with a zero ending: table, cat, fur, sin, axe, pie, forest, demon, light, answer, husband, throne, magician, world, shutter, sunset, answer, haystack, stable, Cossack, warrior, blacksmith, armor, ocean, dinosaur, space. In other forms, all these words have endings. For example: blacksmith-a, blacksmith-om, blacksmith-y. Therefore, all the words given as an example also have an ending that is considered zero.

  Null-ending words should not be confused with immutable words, since they do not have endings in any form.

  Inflections are called zero(endings in school curriculum) that we do not pronounce or hear sounds They not expressed, and also we don’t write and don’t see letters They not marked. Such inflections occur only in significant inflected words declined or conjugated.

  Zero inflection is revealed by simply comparing the form given to us with other word forms of the same lexeme, where inflections are expressed.

  Let's take a small sentence as an example: Brother did his homework. There are two lexemes with zero inflections in nm: BROTIK, PERFORMED. The lexeme BRATIK is in the initial form, there is no EXPRESS inflection behind the stem, but any word forms from the paradigm of its inflection help to understand that it exists: BRATIKA, BRATIKOM (inflections -A, -OM). The same is true in the verb PERFORMED: as soon as we put it in a different gender or another number (PERFORMED, PERFORMED, PERFORMED) it will become clear: in the word form given as an example sentence, the inflection is zero.

  There are zero inflections:

  FOR IMN OF NOUNS

  singular number:

  • 2nd class husband. kind in them pad.: ghost, interruption, internationalism, baboon, brother;
  • inanimate 2nd class. husband. kind in wine fall: I recognize the locker, telephone, elevator, alarm clock;
  • 3rd class in the fall them. and wine: degree, mouse, target, false;
  • raznoskl. PATH in the same cases;

  plural:

  • 2nd class husband. and average kind (not for everyone) and 1st class. kind of wives and husband in the fall family: no towns, schools, lands, sisters, steeples, grandfathers;
  • raznoskl. on -MYA in pad. genus. pl. numbers (except for the lexemes TEMYA, FLAME, BURDEN, they do not have a plural number): imn, vremn, plemn, znamn, vymn (unusual, but the lexeme UDDER is used in the plural), seeds, stirrups;

  FOR IMN ADJECTIVES:

  • Possessives with -IY, -OV (-EV), -IN- (-UN-) are all suffixes, in pad. them. and wine husband. kind: whose? Mashin, papa, Tsaritsyn, grandfathers, Dalev (about the dictionary), raven, wolf, bear;
  • short qualitative ones in number of units. masculine gender: handsome, interesting, magnificent, attractive, powerful;

  AT PRONOUNS

  • demonstrative and possessive in the number of units. sort of husband (cases im. and, if they distribute an inanimate noun, wine): this, that, yours, mine, ours, yours, yours;
  • demonstrative SO and interrogative-relative WHAT in the number of units. kind of male;
  • personal I, YOU and HE (in other inflections expressed in the words WE, YOU inflection -Y);

  FOR IMN NUMERALS:

  • quantitative with the value of a) units (5 9), b) whole tens (10 80) and c) whole hundreds (200 900) in pad. them. and wine Moreover, in complex numbers. in these cases there are two zero inflections: at the end of the word and in the middle, as well as two expressed in other cases, with the exception of the two indicated above;
  • quantitative, denoting whole hundreds (200,900) in gender. pad. at the end of words: two hundred, four hundred, eight hundred, five hundred;
  • ONE (male) in pad. them. and, when combined with noun. inanimate, in wine;

  IN VERBS:

  • indicative mood in husband. kind of past tense: translated, tested, illustrated, scattered;
  • conditional mood in gender husband. numbers of units: would translate, test, illustrate, scatter;
  • imperative moods in the singular: reconsider, make you laugh, add, mark;

  AT PARTICIPLES passive short numbers units masculine gender: carrying (from carried), deciding (from being decided), completed, built.

  Besides, one should distinguish between words with zero inflections and words with no inflections.

  

  The zero ending is quite a common case in the Russian language and there are quite a lot of words that have such an ending not expressed by sounds or letters. For example, many nouns have zero endings in the nominative case: Wolf, Hare, Elephant, Thrush, Mouse, Rabbit. When the form of the word changes, the ending in these words appears - Wolf-Wolf-Wolf-Wolf-Wolf.

  Another case of the presence of a zero ending may be the disappearance of the ending expressed by a sound during declination, for example in the plural. So in the word Owl the ending is A, but in the plural and genitive case we get the word (no one?) OWL, also with a zero ending.

  Zero ending not expressed materially. That is, it is there, but we don’t see it. There is no sound after the root, which expresses the grammatical meaning. For example, the word house. When changing, the ending appears - home, home, home, etc.

  Son, Georgian, soldier, pomegranate, move, year, city, fruit, bridge, order, matchmaker, brother, husband, table, nose, meadow, leaf, union, watermelon, toddler, sock, slipper, elk, elephant, hero, night, mouse, wounded, handsome, etc.

  

functions of words. Therefore, many linguists raised the question of identifying a special section of linguistic science - the study of parts of speech, which, however, did not receive a special terminological name. Despite the lack of a term, parts of speech are the focus of most grammatical concepts.

§ 33. MORPHEMS

Morpheme 1 is the smallest meaningful unit of language. Unlike words and sentences, which are capable of independent use, a morpheme acts as component words and word forms, for example: pi-sa-tel, hod-i-l-a, bud-u pis-a-t.

The word is nominative, the sentence is communicative, the morpheme is a structural unit of language; it is a means of expressing grammatical meanings. Morpheme as a two-sided unit

Unlike phonemes, Morphemes are two-sided units of language: they have two sides - semantic (plane of content) and phonetic (plane of expression). For example, the word coat is divided into the root palt- and the suffix -o; The suffix -o has a phoneme (o) in terms of expression, and a neuter meaning in terms of content. The word selo is divided into stem-sel- and inflection -o; inflection -o has the phoneme (o) as a plan of expression, and the meaning of the neuter nominative-accusative case singular as a content plan. Consequently, we have before us homonymous morphemes: the suffix -o (noun coat in literary language

does not decline) and inflection -o (the noun village declines). The relationship between the semantic and phonetic aspects of a morpheme, their variation can take different kinds

Morph is a specific phonetic variant of a morpheme. Thus, the inflection -o of neuter nouns has two phonetic morphs - [o] and [ъ], cf. village, nodelo [ъ]. The smallest unit of the semantic aspect of a morpheme is called the sem. Morphemes are monosemic (single-valued) and polysemic (multiple-valued). Thus, the suffix of the noun coat has one seme - the meaning of the neuter gender; inflection of the noun selo contains three semes, meaning: 1) gender (neuter), 2) case (nominative or accusative), 3) number (singular). Inflection is a polysemous ending, formative suffix is ​​a monosemous ending.

Since the connection between the semantic and phonetic aspects can historically shift and be destroyed, to that extent in the language it is possible

"The terms “morpheme” and “morpha” are formed on the basis of the Greek noun \judt>t\ - form.

Morphemes with impaired bilaterality, for example, zero morphemes, disappear. A zero morpheme is a morpheme without a morph, that is, a material (phonetic) expression. So, in Old Russian language the word slave had inflection -ъ;

as a result of the fall of the reduced, this inflection lost its phonetic expression: . However, this form remained as part of the forms of the noun, preserving this gender, number and case against the background of other case forms: slave, noraba, slaves; avg. wife Consequently, the grammatical meaning is expressed paradigmatically in these cases, and we say that in the form of the dictionary Arab there is a stem and zero inflection. The presence of inflection as an indicator of grammatical meanings leads to the fact that all changing words receive these grammatical meanings even when one or another form does not have inflection, specifically expressed themes or other sound. The absence of inflection, which in relation to other forms indicates a grammatical meaning, is called zero inflection. Zero inflection in the Russian language occurs in the formation of a number of forms. It can express the meaning of grammatical gender, for example: table (cf. water, village), walked

(cf. walked, walked), good (cf. good, good); number value, for example:

table (cf. tables), bone (cf. bones), walked (cf. walked), kind (cf.

kind); case meaning, for example: table (cf. water, ox), waves (cf.

tables, waves, waves).

Types of morphemes. According to their purpose in language, morphemes are divided into three types: 1) roots, 2) stems, 3) affixes. The root is the common part of all related words

in the composition of the productive base: the word splashdown is formed from the verb to splash down - to sit on the water; producing the base

nal nest, but also at the center of expression and formation of lexical meaning. Therefore, there are no languages ​​without roots; words can be equal to a root (for example, yes, no). Being an obligatory part of a word and repeated in many words, the root undergoes all sorts of phonetic and semantic changes. So, in the words sleep - fall asleep - fall asleep - sleep

the root sleep appears in a free state, used as a noun, whereas in verbs it appears in a bound state - -syp-, -sn-, -sp-;

finding the root requires logical analysis.

The base is the common part of words and word forms that are in direct connection. The basis expresses, with one sides, lexical meaning of this word

, and on the other - its general grammatical meaning. Thus, the basis water- expresses the meaning of the attribute, while water- expresses the meaning of the action. Being fundamentally compound morphemes, stems play an exceptional role in the formation of words and their forms.

Unlike roots and stems, affixes have only grammatical meaning and therefore cannot exist without stems and roots. A f f i k s are the most important type of grammatical means of a language. According to their position relative to the root and stem, affixes are divided into postfixes1 and prefixes. P o s t f i k s are called affixes located after the root or base. They are divided into suffixes and inflections (in Russian grammar, especially school grammar, inflections are called endings). Suffixes can be word-forming and form-forming. For example, in Russian suffix -l- occurs in words soap, musty, soap; to limit ourselves to the statement that these words have the suffix -l- is to miss the functional difference between these forms. In the Russian language, the given words indicate three suffixes of homonyms: two of them (in the word "mylo izatkhly") are unproductive word-forming suffixes, and the third (in the word wash: soap, soap, washed)

- one of the very productive formative suffixes that form the form of the past

grammar uses the term p r i s t a v k a. Like suffixes, prefixes in Russian, as in other Slavic and Indo-European languages, are used in word formation; the scope of their application is especially wide with intraverbal words - education, for example:

However, prefixes are also used as indicators of grammatical meanings, as formative affixes. In Indo-European languages, prefixation during formation is very rare. For example, in Russian, prefixes express the meaning of the perfect form of the verb: make (and

do), write (and write), read (and read); however, the prefix often changes not only the specific meaning, but also the lexical one: cf. read - reread - subtract. IN German prefix ge- serves to form participle: gemacht- made (from machen- to do), geschrieben- written (from schreiben - write); however, even in this case, weak verbs in the form gemacht there is not only a prefix ge-but also the suffix -t.

"In the grammar of the Russian language, the term “postfix” also means the particle -sya (-s): I studied, I study.

Morphemic composition of the word. The language has polymorphemic

And monomorphemic words. Yes, nounteacher consists of 7 morphemes: pre-da-va-tel-nits-a. In German there are complex polynominal nouns, for example die Silberlederdamensandaletten"ladies' sandals made of silver leather." At the same time, one-morpheme, two-morpheme and three-morpheme words are also preserved in the Russian language: here,

there; wall, back; write, wall

The morphemic structure of a word is the result of a long

And historical development of language. Some words have retained their morphemic composition since ancient times; other words have undergone a historical change in their morphemic composition. In its morphemic structure, the Indo-European word was two-morpheme and three-morpheme; it contained a root + + affix (inflection) or a root + topic (suffix) + inflection. Such a morphemic structure can also be found in words modern languages. Yes, word form hodi consists of the root-stem hod"- and the imperative suffix; acting as a base, hodi- can receive an infinitive or past tense suffix: went, walk; the form of the word soap consists of the root we-, suffix- l- and inflection -o. In In the process of historical development, derived stems and fused affixes arise.

§ 34. SERVICE WORDS AND OTHER GRAMMAR FEATURES

Affixes form a special type of grammatical means. In addition to them, grammatical means are also function words, alternation of sounds, semantic convergence of words and stems with suppletivism and reduplication, word order and intonation. All these means are functionally close to affixes.

Functional words. Unlike affixes, function words are not part of another word; however (as well as affixes), function words denote grammatical meanings and serve significant words: the particle would, in combination, say, forms the conditionally desirable mood of the verb say, creates its form and thereby expresses the meaning.

If we compare Russian offer I would go and the German correspondence to it is Jch ginge, then we note that the Russian combination would correspond to the form of the word ginge in the German language. What is expressed in German by the suffix -e (ging-e), in Russian is expressed using a particle. This relationship between the form of a word and combination with a function word is also observed within the same language, for example: read and I will read, read I would read it. Consequently, the form of a word can be formed not only with the help of phonetic means and affixes, but also with the help of function words.

According to their role in the grammatical structure of the language, function words fall into two main groups - service words expressing grammatical the meaning of individual words, and service words expressing syntactic meaning Enabling sentences and phrases.

The first" group includes articles, auxiliary verbs, some particles, words of degrees of comparison: they indicate the grammatical meanings of words inherent to them outside of their use as part of a sentence. For example, from the word strong comparative degree - stronger the most powerful; the auxiliary word is more used for education The comparative degree of this adjective is formed using the word. the most (the strongest), The suffix formation "strongest" is less common.

Another group of function words consists of conjunctions, allied words, many particles, copular verbs; they are used in the construction of sentences and express syntactic meanings. For example, in Russian the conjunction but indicates a coordinating connection between words or sentences and the meaning of opposition or inconsistency. If auxiliary verbs form forms of words, then conjunctions form forms of phrases and sentences.

Prepositions and postpositions. One of the common types of grammatical means are prepositions and postpositions, which reveal nouns, expressing their grammatical meanings and facilitating their inclusion in phrases and sentences.

Prepositions are function words that precede a noun or a word that replaces it. Prepositions form prepositional or prepositional-case combinations; prepositions perform the same formal organizing role as inflections as part of the case form. For example, in the combination of the English language the book of the student, the preposition of establishes a connection between two nouns, subordinates the second to the first, connects them as a defined and a definition, thereby expressing attributive relations. The Russian correspondence “book of a student” has a similar meaning, with the difference, however, that here the relationships between words are established not with the help of a preposition, but with the help of inflection. Like case forms, prepositions not only subordinate a name to another word, but also express typical, frequently repeated relationships between objects: spatial, temporal, causal, target, object, instrumental and some others. Since the Russian language has case forms expressed by inflections, prepositions, even the most common ones, clarify these meanings.

Although prepositions and inflections can express the same grammatical meanings and prepositions, without having an independent

stress, phonetically combined with the noun, there is a significant grammatical difference between the preposition and the inflection (or case suffix). Inflection is part of a word, it changes its form and morphological meanings; the preposition is not part of the word.

Afterwords are called function words that are used after a noun (i.e., postpositively) and express its relationship to other words. Postpositions are rare in Indo-European languages. IN Latin, for example, prepositions and conjunctions were occasionally used postpositively: Omnia mea porto mecum - I carry everything that is mine with me; senatus populusque Romanus - the Senate and the Roman people. In many other languages, on the contrary, postpositions are of great importance. Postpositions are one of the most important grammatical indicators in the Turkic and Finno-Ugric languages, in Mongolian, Japanese and a number of others. Like prepositions, postpositions indicate the subordination of a word and are combined with certain cases, most often with cases of spatial meaning - dative, locative, directive and initial. Thus, in the Tatar language postlogbelen (with, through), echen (because of), asha (through, through) are combined with the indefinite (nominative) case, cards (against), Karaganda (depending on, judging by) - with the dative, sleep (after, through)

With the original one. Postpositions express typical relationships between objects - spatial and temporal, causal and target, object, instrumental and some others.

Articles. The article serves a noun. It is found in a number of Indo-European languages ​​(for example, in Germanic and Romance languages, Persian), Arabic, Hungarian and other languages. From Slavic languages The article (postpositive member) is found in Bulgarian and Macedonian.

The article is an indicator of a noun; it distinguishes a noun from a verb and other parts of speech. For example, in English language the article the (ilia) indicates a noun: the act - deed, deed, to act - to act, the copy - copy, copy, to copy - reproduce, copying, the defeat - defeat, to defeat - to defeat, the plant - plant ,to plant - to plant, etc.

An article can precede a noun, i.e. be

English, German, French, postpositive article - in Swedish, Romanian, Albanian, Bulgarian (cf., for example, in Bulgarian: zemyata, ezikt, nebeto).

Particles. Particles are a group of function words that differ in origin, semantics and grammatical functions. Particles, on the one hand, are used to form word forms. Thus, in the Russian language, the particle forms the form of reference-

negative mood, in Bulgarian the particle shche- is the form of the future tense of the verb. Particles, on the other hand, like conjunctions, serve as a means of constructing sentences. So, in Russian, particles can be used to construct subordinate clauses indirect question

for example: I asked him if he had read this book.

language for constructing analytical forms of words. In Russian, this is the particle would, forming the subjunctive mood. In English, the indicator of the infinitive of a verb is the particle to; in German, zu is used for the infinitive, and the particle am is used to form superlatives adverbs and adjectives(am schnell-sten

The fastest, the fastest); in French, the particle en forms a gerund (en traversant - passing, en voyant - seeing), the particle I - impersonal verbs (//gele - freezes, il faut - necessary).

However, in languages, particles expressing different syntactic and modal meanings are more common. Thus, in English and French they are often used as substitute words that create the structural design of a sentence. The German pronouns es and man act as formal subjects that formalize impersonal and indefinitely personal sentences; the same can be said about the English pronouns it and one and the French // and ion, for example:

It is dark. - It’s dark; //faut. - Necessary.

Alternation of sounds and stress. Alternation of sounds and re-

Stress placement is used to differentiate both words and word forms. For example, alternating g||z||z into each other (friends)

Making friends distinguishes different bases. The alternation without\\zh is found in the verb forms transport -vozhu -vezish, where the sound [zh] shows (together with the inflection -у) the 1st person of the present tense.

Alternations of vowels and consonants can be used to express grammatical meanings. The alternation of the zero sound with the vowels o, e is observed in the case forms of some nouns: sleep - sleep, day - day, sister - sisters, earth

Zemel, etc. Alternation of consonants occurs in the formation of present tense forms: wear - burden, love

I love, let - let, etc.

IN in some languages, alternation of sounds is used more often and more regularly; changing sounds within a root or stem when expressing grammatical meanings is called stem inflection (or internal inflection). Internal inflection is used, for example, in the formation of number and tense forms in English: foot - foot

and feet -feet (legs), man -man and men_ -people, write -to write (I write) andwrote -

wrote (wrote), think - think (think) and though [θе:t] - thought (thought). Internal inflection plays a major role in Semitic languages ​​(see § 45, p. 274).

Grammatical means can arise not only by phonetic modification of roots and stems, the transition of significant words into function words, but also by bringing together different stems and roots, as well as by repeating them.

The forms he and him (him, etc.) differ not only in inflections but also in the basis, the change of which arose by bringing together two pronominal roots (on and; cf.). The forms id-u and she-l differ not only in affixes (inflection -u and suffix -l-), but also in the base, the change of which is the result of the convergence of different roots. In German, from the verb sein the present tense is bin (ist, sind), and the past tense is war. The difference between id and (i) went, bin

and war is not associated with the expression different concepts about the action itself

And state, this is a grammatical difference. If we take pairs such as Russian. man - people, bolg.chovek - chora, then we note that the difference between these words expresses the meaning of the singular and plural. Therefore, the convergence of two different roots expresses grammatical meanings, and these pairs of words can be called word forms: bin and war are tense forms of the verb sein, man and people are number forms of the same word.

Word forms that are formed by the grammatical convergence of different roots or stems are called suppletive,

and this way of expressing grammatical meanings is suppletivism. In all languages, suppletivism is usually combined with other means of forming word forms. Thus, in Indo-European languages, the plural forms of nouns are usually formed with the help of affixes, and even the form people has a plural ending; in the form came, the past tense is expressed by the suffix -l.

Supplemental forms (supplementives) are relatively rare.

Repetition of stems to express the plural of a name is used mainly in Indonesian, Paleo-African, Austronesian, as well as in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. Thus, in the Indonesian language there are the forms orang-orang (people, priorang - person), kuda-kuda (horses, prikuda - horse), in Chinese zhen-zhen (people, prizhen person), sinsin (stars, prixin - star), in Bushman ka-ka (hands, prika

Hand), tu-tu (mouths, pritu - mouth). Repetition of stems to express superlatives is also not found in all languages, but is more common than the formation of number forms. So, in the Hawaiian language we have: lii -

small and lii-lii very small; in Chinese: xiao - small xiao-xiao-dy - very small, hao - good ihao-hao-dy - very good. In Turkic languages, the first word r is repeated and a labial consonant is added to it; for example, Chuvash forms: sara - yellow, sap-sara - yellow-yellow, shura - white, shap-shura - white-white, hura - black, hup-khura - completely black. An examination of grammatical means shows that they do not exist by themselves: they act as components of grammatical forms and express the semantics of categories inherent in a particular part of speech. The originality of the grammatical structure different languages

§ 35. WORD FORMS AND WORD-FORMATION MODELS

Morphemes are the smallest bilateral units of language; they, as we have seen, are not used by themselves and historically undergo various modifications, merge with each other, begin to function as morphemes and blocks, forming derivative stems and compound (complex) affixes. Increase specific gravity morphemic blocks also occur due to borrowing: words are usually borrowed, and not their morphemic composition. A borrowed word is perceived as a pure base, which takes on the form of the language that it borrows.

Let's compare two rows of words: pencil - pen, bulldozer-receptionist, hairdresser-farmer. If the Russians are pro-

of the Chinese kind. Their morphemic articulation is lost: the repeated borrowed suffix -er is in a bound state due to the ambiguity of the productive stem. Morphemic motivation can also be lost in words of original origin (see p. 259).

The morphological structure of a word is realized not only due to the free use of stems and affixes, but also due to the fact that each word is included in one or another category, accepts one or another paradigm, and becomes a component of one or another word-formation series. The presence of associative connections between words and forms of words, their combination into paradigms and word-formation series and nests are the two main types of connections characteristic of

language as a grammatical whole.

and feet - feet (legs), man - person and_men -

people, write - write (write) and wrote - wrote (wrote), think - think (think) and thought - thought (thought). Internal inflection plays a major role in Semitic languages ​​(see § 45, p. 274).

Supplemental forms and repetitions. Grammatical means can arise not only through phonetic modification of roots and stems, the transition of significant words into function words, but also by bringing together different stems and roots, as well as through their repetition.

The forms he and him (him, etc.) differ not only in inflections, but also in the basis, the change of which arose by bringing together two pronominal roots (on and; cf.). The forms id-u and she-l differ not only in affixes (inflection -u and suffix -l-), but also in the base, the change of which is the result of the convergence of different roots. In German, from the verb sein the present tense is bin (ist, sind), and the past tense is war. The difference between idu and (ya) went, bin and war is not associated with the expression of different concepts about the action and state itself, this is a grammatical difference. If we take pairs such as Russian chelovek -lyudi, Bulgarian chovek -hora, we will notice that the difference between these words expresses the meaning of the singular and plural. Therefore, the convergence of two different roots expresses grammatical meanings, and these pairs of words can be called word forms: bin and war are tense forms of the verb sein, man and people are number forms of the same word.

Word forms that are formed by the grammatical convergence of different roots or stems are called suppletive, and this way of expressing grammatical meanings is supplet and vizm. In all languages, suppletivism is usually combined with other means of forming words. Thus, in Indo-European languages, the plural forms of nouns are usually formed with the help of affixes, and even the form people has a plural ending; in the form came, the past tense is expressed by the suffix -l.

Supplemental forms (supplementives) are relatively rare.

Repetition of stems to express the plural of a name is used mainly in Indonesian, Paleo-African, Austronesian, as well as in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. Thus, in the Indonesian language there are the forms orang-orang (people, priorang - person), kuda-kuda (horses, prikuda - horse), in Chinese zhen-zhen, (people, prizhen - person), sin-sin (stars, prixin - star), in Bushman ka-ka (hands, prika - hand), tu-tu (mouths, pritu - mouth). Repetition of stems to express superlatives is also not found in all languages, but is more common than the formation of number forms. So, in the Hawaiian language we have: lii -
I, naive, lived for myself and lived with the conviction, partly even proud, that I knew Russian well)) Oh-oh..
Today I sat down with books to prepare a simple sign for them - well, everything is so primitive, I thought, make a plural out of the singular, just think.
She sat down and away she went.
Having looked through three Russian textbooks for foreigners, I was not satisfied with any of them; each one was missing something (or maybe I’m just an inexperienced nitpicker and digger). I decided to make my own sign - masculine here, feminine there, neuter in general, nonsense.
It turned out that I clearly and quickly and clearly cannot explain out loud why and in which cases we say city - cities, and in which - table - tables, and why the stress “jumps” on the last syllable, and in which, even worse, a chair - chairs... Here I am specifically puzzled and have to go into the thick grammar for Russians and read it, then I understand how I will explain this and place it on the sign, but along the way it turns out that I will have to mention that Some nouns can only be singular or only plural! And I already know that engineers will definitely ask - which ones? can you remember them? no, you will have to answer me, because the list is large and generally open, that is, it simply does not exist, but there is another rule that includes as many as seven points, each worse than the other (cinema, taxi, attache, coffee, kangaroo...) , as a result, I remove three points from the explanation of the sign altogether, because they won’t remember it for sure, they’ll just create unnecessary questions.
And so, hurray, I’m happily about to draw a sign for them, the thought suddenly occurs to me that after all, my engineers, and they are logical thinking people (like all men, and I’m a woman), will definitely ask me later - why these nouns can they only be singular and how do they differ from the rest? Already cold from this question, I climb further into the book and see that, it turns out, in the Russian language nouns can only be in the singular, those that form a group of indeclinables, that is, they do not change by case! Here I happily make this note in the draft and am about to take a breath...
But then another thought instantly spoils everything - horror, they will ask me, why don’t these indeclinables change according to cases?! They will ask - why everyone changes, but these don’t?! And really, why, why?!...
I’m reading another book and googling “indeclinable nouns,” and what? The answer is “they don’t decline because the paradigm of such nouns consists of homonymous forms with zero inflection”...
And then I understand with great satisfaction that I have reached the point)))) because my task, as a teacher, is not to complicate, but to simplify! And, having understood it myself, I can now do just that.
But my engineers don’t need to know for sure about this zero inflection)))
But how then to answer their possible question? It’s not about inflection and the paradigm to rub into them?)) This is the same language classes, not a linguistic circle...
Is this how experienced and smart people talk about it in class? I wish I knew... Because the answer “well, it just happened this way historically” - well, it definitely doesn’t work.

An ending that is not materially expressed and is distinguished in a word by comparison with the correlative forms in which it is materially represented.

In the noun student, in relation to the forms of indirect cases student, student, etc., students, students, etc., a zero ending is allocated, indicating the nominative case singular form.

In the combination pair of boots, the second word, but in relation to other forms of its paradigm (boot, boot, etc., boots, boots, etc.) distinguishes in its composition the zero ending of the genitive plural.

In the short adjective new, in relation to the forms of other genders and the plural nova, novo, novy, the zero ending of the singular masculine is distinguished. The zero ending in the possessive pronoun our has a similar meaning (in comparison with the forms ours, ours, ours). In the verb form read, there is a zero ending, indicating the masculine gender (in comparison with the forms read, read, read). Zero endings go back to endings that were once materially expressed, and appeared as a result of the phonetic loss of reduced vowels (ъ) and (ь) at the end of words ( Wed Old Russian table, chital, pain - in the last word ь was a graphic sign denoting a reduced front-middle vowel of the middle rise).

"zero inflection" in books

Word isolation. Flexion and agglutination