Establishment of the Netherlands as a sovereign state. Netherlands news feed

Many rich and influential cities arose in the Netherlands (Ypres, Ghent, Bruges, Liege), which were able to achieve privileges and self-government. In these cities, the largest system of guild organization of crafts and merchant guilds in medieval Europe developed: there were guilds of merchants who traded with other countries, and associations (guilds) of artisans of various professions, especially guilds that produced clothing and cloth. The gradual transfer of control into the hands of the townspeople was accompanied, however, as in the city-states of Northern Italy, by violent conflicts, especially between the burghers and the artisans who worked for them. Several uprisings took place. The largest of them were the uprisings of clothiers, who were led in 1338–1345 by Jacob van Artevelde, and in 1382

In the 14th century The Dutch territories became relatively independent regions. This happened at a time when the brother of the French king, Duke of Burgundy Philip the Bold in 1384 became the ruler of Flanders and Artois, and his successors annexed Holland, Zealand, Hainaut, Namur

Alba arrested and executed the Counts of Egmont and Horn, who led the noble opposition in the Council of State. The most prominent representative of the opposition, Prince William of Orange, later called William the Silent, fled to Germany, where he led the resistance and organized military campaigns against Alba. All of them were unsuccessful, but Prince William did not stop fighting. His attempts to resist Alba seemed hopeless, until in 1572 a detachment of “sea gueuzes” captured the port of Bril (modern Bril). Soon all of Zealand and Holland, except Amsterdam, found themselves in the grip of the “sea gueuzes” and their accomplices, the “forest gueuzes,” mostly militant Calvinists. Representatives of the wealthy sections of the population of these provinces met in Dordrecht in 1572 and recognized William of Orange as their ruler - the Stadthouder. Soon after this he returned to the country and led the fight against Philip

Attempts by William of Orange to reconcile different segments of the population culminated in the convening of the States General in Ghent in 1576, where all 17 provinces accepted the text of the so-called. "Pacification of Ghent" According to this document, the provinces were united under the leadership of William of Orange, although the supreme power of King Philip II was recognized. The States General voted for the withdrawal of foreign troops, the introduction of a more liberal form of government, and the abolition of “posters” against heretics. However, the new governor Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, sent by Philip

Farnese pursued a softer policy towards Protestants than Philip II , however, was unable to suppress the resistance. Several provinces located north of the Rhine united with the cities of Flanders and Brabant and signed the Union of Utrecht on January 23, 1579, declaring their intention to fight to the end for political independence and religious freedom. In 1580, Philip II declared William of Orange his enemy. In response, the States General of the seven northern provinces declared that from now on they would not recognize Philip. II as sovereign. Act of Deposition of Philip II was signed on July 26, 1581.

Ancient and medieval Netherlands. Agriculture was introduced to the Netherlands around 4500 BC. Around 750 BC The people of the Netherlands learned to use iron. In the 1st century BC. The Romans conquered the south of the Netherlands. They built roads and cities. However, they did not colonize the northern part of the Netherlands. In the 8th century AD. The Franks conquered the region. At the same time, the area was converted to Christianity. In 768 Charlemagne became the ruler of the Franks and created a great empire in Europe. However, after his death in 814, the empire was divided into three parts. At first the Netherlands were part of the Middle Empire, but in 925 they were included in the German Empire. During the 9th and 10th centuries, the Netherlands suffered from Viking raids. In the 14th century, Dutch cities enjoyed considerable freedom. However, in the 15th century, the Duke of Burgundy gradually took control of the region.

The Netherlands during the Renaissance. The Netherlands becomes the domain of the powerful Habsburg family. During this time, the teachings of John Calvin became popular in Dutch cities. In 1567, King Philip sent his army to suppress the Calvinists. Then Prince William of Orange, known as William the Quiet, began to fight for Dutch freedom. In 1572, under the leadership of William, the pirates entered into battle with the Spaniards. In 1579, seven regions of the Low Countries signed the Union of Utrecht. In 1581 they declared independence from Spain. In 1588 they formed the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands. In the 17th century, the Netherlands became a prosperous country. Spain finally recognized Dutch independence in 1648. However, trade rivalry with England led to three wars in 1652-54, 1665-67 and 1672-74. At the end of the 17th century, science, art and philosophy flourished in the Netherlands. Holland was involved in the War of the Spanish Succession against the French.

Netherlands in the 19th century. In 1795, the French invaded the Netherlands and founded the Batavian Republic. In 1806, Napoleon appointed his brother Louis as King of the Netherlands. However, in 1813 William of Orange returned to the Netherlands. In 1814 he became King William I. In 1815, Belgium and Holland were united into one country under King William I. However, the two countries were too different to be united. In 1830, the Belgians rebelled, and Belgium gained independence in 1839.

The Netherlands in the 20th century. During the First World War, the Netherlands remained neutral. In the 1930s, like the rest of the world, the Netherlands suffered from depression and mass unemployment. When did the second one begin? World War Holland remained neutral, but on May 10 the Germans invaded. On May 14, the Germans bombed Rotterdam. The Netherlands were forced to surrender. Thousands of Dutch men were deported to work in Germany. 23,000 people who resisted were shot. The Netherlands soon recovered from the war, and a new welfare state was created. In 1949, the Dutch colony of Indonesia became independent. The Netherlands became a member of the EU in 1957. Today the Netherlands is a prosperous country. Growing flowers is still an important sector of the economy.

Netherlands Map

Holland in the second half of the 17th and 18th centuries.

1. Holland of the second half of the 17th century. Anglo-Dutch Wars

The victory of the bourgeois revolution in the north of the Netherlands caused rapid economic and cultural growth in the country. While feudal reaction continued in the southern provinces, which remained under the rule of the Spanish monarchy, leading to economic decline, the seven northern provinces, united into the federal Dutch Republic (United Provinces of the Netherlands), overtook all other European states in their development within a few decades and turned into an exemplary capitalist country of the 17th century. England was just beginning to reap the fruits of its bourgeois revolution, but in Holland the capitalist system was already firmly rooted.

Bourgeois Holland, having gained dominance in world trade and seized vast colonial possessions, took a prominent place among the European powers. In January 1648, by a separate peace treaty in Munster, concluded between Holland and Spain shortly before the end of the Thirty Years' War, Spain was forced to recognize the political independence of the United Provinces, and in October of the same year, by the Peace of Westphalia, the independence of Holland was recognized by the empire.

Economic condition of Holland

The Dutch Republic, small in territory (25 thousand sq. km) and population (about 2 million), by the middle of the 17th century. has achieved significant success in all sectors of the economy. Thousands of hectares of land were reclaimed from the sea and swamps for Agriculture. Holland has become a country of advanced agricultural technology and highly productive dairy farming. Important role in Dutch national economy fishing played a role, in which a significant part of the population was employed, especially herring fishing; The importance of this fishery for the country is aptly characterized by the Dutch proverb that says that Amsterdam grew up on herring bones. In the second half of the 17th century, whaling, which the Dutch were engaged in off the coast of Spitsbergen and Iceland, also developed greatly. In Svalbard voyages alone, in which 200-250 ships took part annually, 1300-1400 whales were caught, and the net income in some years exceeded 10 million guilders.

The development of manufacturing industry and crafts was also exceptionally high and versatile. The textile industry and related dyeing, bleaching and other industries have become widespread. Leiden became the most important center of the wool industry in Europe. There were dozens of large manufactories and hundreds of small workshops, employing tens of thousands of workers. The city's textile industry reached its peak in 1664, when 144 thousand pieces of various fabrics were produced. A large number of fabrics were also produced in Amsterdam, Rotterdam and other cities of the republic. The bleaching workshops were concentrated in Haarlem (Harlem), which was also famous for its silk industry. The Dutch shipbuilding industry has acquired international importance. During its peak period, at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries, hundreds of ships were built simultaneously in Holland. In Amsterdam alone there were several dozen shipbuilding yards. The construction of ships in Holland was one and a half to two times cheaper than in England, and many times cheaper than in all other countries. Therefore, merchant ships were built here for a number of European states. Even English shipowners often placed their orders with Dutch shipyards. Rope, sailing, paper, glass, brick and woodworking manufactories, sawmills and weapons workshops existed in many cities of the republic. Book printing was highly developed, and Dutch navigational instruments were very famous. Almost every city had breweries and dairies, and dozens of sugar and tobacco enterprises operated in the country. Holland was also famous for its fine crafts: artistic tiles and porcelain, watches and jewelry, which were important export items.

Successes in the development of agriculture and industry were the basis for the development of Dutch trade. The most important role in the Dutch economy was played by trade with the Baltic countries, which supplied Holland with bread, timber and metals and was a market for Dutch herring, linen, cloth and cheese. Initially, intermediary trade was not of decisive importance in its overall turnover. But already in the 16th century. huge profits that intermediary trade brought due to the significant difference in prices in the markets of different European countries, attracted the main capital of the Dutch bourgeoisie to this industry. Ship freight occupied a prominent place in its income. Given the poor condition of land roads in Europe, the Dutch merchant fleet, numbering about 15 thousand ships, played in the 17th century. a primary role in the development of international trade relations. Dutch merchants and shipowners - the sea carriers of Europe, as they were then called - combined the transportation of foreign goods with intermediary operations. By the middle of the 17th century, they concentrated in their hands almost all trade between the northern and southern countries Europe. The Dutch resold grain purchased in the Baltic states in the markets of Mediterranean countries; German wines, products of French manufactures and crafts, fruits from Spain and colonial goods ended up in Northern Europe almost exclusively through their mediation. In Holland, English cloth was refined and then resold abroad. About 70% of Baltic shipping was concentrated in the hands of the Dutch. Having pushed aside the British, Holland took first place in Russia's foreign trade. Several dozen Dutch ships annually visited Arkhangelsk, from where they exported Russian furs, caviar, resin, potash, hemp, lard, Iranian silk, and in some years, bread. In the second half of the 17th century. Dutch trade with France and England suffered significant damage as a result of wars and protectionist policies to which these countries switched. Nevertheless, Dutch trade as a whole increased significantly during the second half of the 17th century, with annual trade turnover exceeded 100-120 million guilders at the end of this century.

The Dutch bourgeoisie was not content with high trade profits in Europe; in pursuit of profit, it rushed to the Spanish and Portuguese colonies. The Dutch East India Company and the West India Company, organized in 1621, had extensive financial means, its own fleet, its own armed forces and unlimited powers received from the government in the colonies. In the spice production areas, on the Sunda and Moluccas Islands, the Dutch created a whole network of their fortresses and trading posts, centered in Batavia (in Java). In the second half of the 17th century. position of the Dutch East India Company in South-East Asia strengthened even more. Using internecine struggle feudal principalities, the Dutch gradually subjugated the Indonesian feudal lords and captured the entire spice trade. In 1656, the Dutch captured the city of Negapatam, which became their main stronghold in India, and by the end of the 50s they completely ousted the Portuguese from the island of Ceylon.

Western expansion was less successful. Initially, the West India Company managed to take possession for the most part Portuguese Brazil and establish itself on the east coast North America. In the middle of English possessions, the Dutch in 1626 founded their colony - New Holland with the center of New Amsterdam (present-day New York). However, they were unable to stay in these colonies: in the second half of the 17th century. their possessions in America were limited only to those taken from the British during the war of 1665-1667. Suriname, which became the raw material base of the Dutch sugar industry, and several islands in the Caribbean Sea. The Dutch also created a number of forts on the west coast of Africa, and on its south coast founded the Cape Colony.

The colonial system was a hothouse for Dutch large trading capital. Almost 10% of the trading profits of the Dutch bourgeoisie came from colonial trade. The greatest benefit from this trade was gained by the predatory and enterprising elite of the merchant class of the province of Holland, who controlled the East India Company.

The importance of colonies as markets in the 17th century. it was still small. The main source of income for the Dutch bourgeoisie was the robbery of the natural resources of the colonies and the brutal exploitation of their indigenous population. Marx branded the activities of the Dutch colonial companies as "an unparalleled picture of betrayals, briberies, murders and baseness" ( K. Marx, Capital, vol. I, p. 755.).

Domination of trade and seizure of vast territories colonial possessions provided Holland with industrial dominance for some time. The Dutch bourgeoisie had free access to sources of raw materials in many countries and could profitably sell their industrial products in foreign markets; it had free capital to invest in large industry; It also had at its disposal an exceptionally developed financial and credit system at that time.

However, Holland took the path of developing not so much industrial as commercial and usurious capital. This is especially clearly evidenced by the history of its most important economic center - Amsterdam, which was the center of the large Dutch bourgeoisie, a world trading port and the center of exchange, trade and financial and credit operations.

Already in early XVII V. The importance of the Amsterdam Stock Exchange rises, replacing and far surpassing the once famous Antwerp Stock Exchange. At the Amsterdam Stock Exchange, through Dutch brokers, transactions were concluded between merchants and financiers throughout Europe; here prices were set for all goods that were the subject of Dutch intermediary trade; shares were quoted here trading companies, rates of government securities were determined, loans provided to foreign governments were placed, etc.

At the end of the Middle Ages, the area located in the lower reaches of the rivers Rhine, Maas And Scheldt, along the North Sea coast, came to be called the “maritime lowlands.” Over time, this descriptive geographical term evolved into the name of the country of the Netherlands (translated as “low lands”). In the 19th century the name began to be attributed only to the northern part of the region - the current Kingdom of the Netherlands, which is often also called Holland, according to the two provinces that make up its historical core.

The Netherlands has been inhabited since ice age, and the oldest traces of human activity are about one hundred thousand years old. During the Ice Age, the country had tundra with sparse vegetation. The first inhabitants were hunters and gatherers. At the end of the Ice Age, the area was inhabited by various Paleolithic groups. Around 8000 BC, a Mesolithic tribe lived near Bergumermeira in Friesland.

In the post-glacial period, the inhabitants of the northern and western regions of the country suffered from frequent floods, and the first permanent settlements of pastoralists arose on the terpa hills, which ensured the safety of people and animals. In more southern areas, where there was no threat of flooding, farming was the main occupation.

Iron balls were found in the area Veluwe, as well as in the south of the country (where red iron ore lay near the rivers of Brabant). This shows that blacksmiths traveled from settlement to settlement with bronze and iron, and made axes, knives, pins, spears and swords. They also seem to have been able to make Damascus steel.

The wealth of the Netherlands in the Iron Age is shown by the royal grave in Osse(about 500 BC), in which the king was buried with several remarkable objects, including an iron sword with a layer of gold and coral. He was buried in the largest grave in Western Europe - 52 meters wide.

Written information about the territory of the Netherlands first appears in historical documents from Roman times, when troops led by Julius Caesar, having conquered Gaul, invaded the territory of modern Germany and Great Britain. Since the route from Germany to Britain lay through the Rhine delta, this area acquired important strategic importance for the Romans. It was then that the construction of earthen dams began to protect against floods. The Romans built a great road that ran from the coast of France through the southern Netherlands to Colonia (modern Cologne).

At the time of the arrival of the Romans, the Netherlands was inhabited by German tribes such as Tubants, caninefates And friezes who settled there around 600 BC. e. Celtic tribes such as Eburones And menapia, inhabited the south of the country. Some Germans settled south of the Rhine at the beginning of Roman colonization, and formed German tribes Batavians And toxanders.

Many tribes inhabiting the Rhine delta and its southern border were conquered, and those who survived became allies of the Romans. From one of these tribes - Belgov and the name of the Roman province came from Belgica(the prototype of modern Belgium). On the islands of the Rhine and Meuse delta lived Batavians, so the name was assigned to this territory Batavia. The Batavians were considered good soldiers and fought in many important wars, such as the conquest of Dacia by Emperor Trajan. Subsequently, nationalist historians considered the Batavians to be the "true" ancestors of the Netherlands, a view reflected in the name "Batavian Republic".
In 69-70 AD. under the direction of Julia Civilisa A Batavian uprising arose against the Romans, which was brutally suppressed.

The Conspiracy of Julius Civilis is a painting by Rembrandt depicting the Batavian oath to Gaius Julius Civilis, leader of the Batavian revolt against the Romans in 69 AD.

Then peace reigned in the area for several centuries. Meanwhile, the power of the Roman Empire was weakening. In the second half of the 3rd century. AD Germanic tribes began to move west to the Netherlands, pushing the Romans out of the area north of the Rhine delta. From the middle of the 4th century. the interior of the Netherlands was overrun francs And Saxons, many of them settled in the conquered lands and took up farming. Germanic was perceived as a common language between victors and vanquished. Detachments of Frankish conquerors moved further south, occupied Roman Gaul and called it the land of the Franks ( France), changing their language to Latin, common in those places. The linguistic border ran roughly along the Boulogne-Cologne road, with Germanic languages ​​spoken north of it and Latin (later French) spoken to the south.
Linguistic differences didn't matter much political role during the reign of the Frankish kings dynasties Merovingian And Carolingian.

As a border territory, the Netherlands changed hands during the constant redistribution of land by the Frankish kings (as an example, we note the division of Charlemagne's empire between his three grandsons according to the Treaty of Verdun 843). As a result of the subsequent repeated divisions and alternate annexation of these lands either to the eastern or to the western part of the Frankish state, approximately approx. 1000 The Netherlands formally became part of the Holy Roman Empire and remained so until 1648. Most of the Flemings (who lived north of the linguistic border and spoke the Flemish dialect) fell under the rule of the French kings, while the French-speaking regions of Hainaut and Namur became part of the Holy Roman Empire.

Holy Roman Empire

So, the newcomers merged with the old population and formed three peoples of the “Lower Countries”: friezes along the coast, Saxons in the east and francs on South. The Franks adopted Christianity in 496 year. After the conquest of Friesland by the Franks, the Frisians also adopted Christianity. Anglo-Saxon missionaries took part in the baptism of these peoples Willibrod, Wulfram And Boniface.

Bonifatius lässt die Donareiche fällen. Bild von 1737 befindet sich in der St.Martinskirche von Westenhofen bei Schliersee

Boniface was killed by the Frisians at Dokkum in 754. The Saxons in the east were baptized before the conquest of Saxony, and became allies of the Franks.

The southern part of the Netherlands belonged to the Frankish Empire Charlemagne

Louis-Félix Amiel Charlemagne

Coin of Charlemagne showing him in traditional Roman clothing

centered in what is now Belgium and northern France, which also included France, Germany, Italy and northeastern Spain. In the north the Netherlands were part Frisia until 734. IN 843 year the Frankish empire was divided into three parts, creating France in the West, Germany in the east and "Middle Kingdom" between them. Most of the Netherlands became part of this “Middle Kingdom”. Subsequently, this state was divided: the part that is now spoken in Dutch became part of Germany, and Flanders became part of France.

From 800 to 1000 The Low Countries suffered greatly from Viking invasions, one of which destroyed a wealthy city Dorestad. Most of the Netherlands was occupied by the Vikings from 850 to 920. At the same time, France and Germany fought for control of the “middle” kingdom. The local nobility fought the Vikings, strengthening their influence in the process. Viking dominance ended in 920 the year when the German king Henry I the Birdcatcher released Utrecht.

Henry I the Birdcatcher

German kings and emperors controlled the Netherlands in the 10th and 11th centuries. After the king Otto the Great was proclaimed emperor

Otto I the Great in the Chronicle of the Saxons and Thuringians (c. 1530/1535), Weimar, depicted by Lucas Cranach the Elder.

Germany began to be called Holy Roman Empire. City Nymegen played an important role for the German emperors, and several emperors were born and died in this city. Utrecht was also an important city and trading port. German officials kept a close eye on the Count of West Friesland (Holland), who then rebelled against them in 1018 year. His county was supposed to become part of Utrecht after 1018, but due to the conflict between the pope and the emperor it retained its independence.

Much of the western Netherlands was largely uninhabited between the end of the Roman period and about 1100. Around 1100, farmers from Flanders and Utrecht began buying marshy land, draining it and cultivating it. This process was rapid, and the empty land was inhabited within just a few generations. Independent farms were created that were not part of villages - a unique phenomenon in Europe at that time. Before this, the language and culture of most of the people who inhabited the territory of what is now Holland was Frisian. This area was known as " West Friesland"(Westfriesland). As new settlements were created, the area took on a Lower Franconian character, and in the 12th century it began to be called " Holland" The part of North Holland located north of Lake Aj (IJ) is still sometimes called "West Friesland".

Around 1000 AD e. There was an improvement in agricultural technology (sometimes called the agricultural revolution), which led to a significant increase in food production. The economy began to develop at a rapid pace, and increased productivity allowed farmers to cultivate more land or become traders. Guilds were formed, and as production exceeded local needs, this led to the formation of markets. The advent of money greatly facilitated trade. Existing cities increased their population, new cities arose near monasteries and castles, and a middle class of merchants began to form in these urban areas. Population growth led to further development of commerce and the consolidation of cities.

Crusades were popular in the Low Countries, and many took part in the fighting in the Holy Land. Relative peace reigned in Europe at this time. The Vikings, Hungarians and Muslims stopped their plunder. The Crusades and peace in Europe contributed to the growth of commerce and trade.

Crusaders. Wall painting of the 12th century Templar Chapel, Cressac

New cities appeared and flourished, especially in Flanders And Brabante. As cities grew in wealth and influence, they began to purchase certain privileges from their sovereign, including city rights, that is, the right to self-govern and make laws. In practice, this meant that the richest cities became partially independent republics. The most important cities were Bruges And Antwerp, which will later be acquired great importance throughout Europe as cities and ports.

The Holy Roman Empire was unable to maintain political unity. Apart from the growing independence of the cities, local rulers turned their counties and duchies into private kingdoms, and they owed little to the emperor, who had no real control over much of the country. Much of what is now the Netherlands was actually ruled by Count of Holland, Duke of Gelre(roughly corresponding to the current province Gelderland), Duke of Brabant And Bishop of Utrecht. Friesland And Groningen in the north they retained their independence and were ruled by minor nobility.

Netherlands in the 14th century

The various feudal states were in a state of almost constant war. Gelre And Holland fought for control of Utrecht. Utrecht, whose bishop ruled most of what is now the Netherlands in 1000 lost almost all influence due to problems with electing new bishops. At the same time, the dynasties of neighboring states were more stable. Groningen, Drenthe and most Gelre, which formerly belonged to Utrecht, gained independence. Brabant tried to conquer his neighbors, but was unsuccessful. Holland tried to capture Zealand And Friesland, but also without success.

In the north, Friesland continued to maintain its independence. She had her own system government controlled, called the "Frissian Freedom", and resisted the establishment of the feudal system and aristocracy characteristic of other European cities. The Fries considered themselves allies of Switzerland, and had a battle cry of "better dead than slave." They subsequently lost their independence after being defeated in 1498 by the German mercenaries of Duke Albrecht, who ruled in Saxony-Meissen.