→ Medieval philosophy

In the article we will briefly consider medieval philosophy, its main characteristics and problems, the main stages of development, principles, main ideas and representatives.

Medieval European philosophy- an extremely important meaningful and long-term stage in the history of philosophy, covering a thousand-year period from the collapse of the Roman Empire to the Renaissance (V-XV centuries). This was the era of the emergence and flourishing of world religions. A different type of philosophizing in relation to this was due to a fundamentally different type of civilization, the development of feudal relations, and new socio-political conditions.

Medieval philosophy in its ideological essence theocentric (from Greek θεός - God and Latin centrum - center). Reality, which means everything that exists, is derived not from nature, but from. The content of monotheistic religious teachings (primarily Judaism, Christianity, Islam) determined the emergence of a special type of philosopher: philosopher-clergyman . Philosophy consciously puts itself at the service. “Philosophy is the handmaiden of theology” - this was the widespread opinion of educated circles in medieval Europe. Most scientists were representatives of the clergy, and monasteries were centers of culture and science. In such conditions, philosophy could develop only from the position of the church.

The main problems of medieval philosophy were as follows:

• Was the world created by God or has it existed from eternity?
• Is the will and intentions of God and the world he created comprehensible?
• What is the place of man in the world and what is his role in history through salvation human soul?
• How are human free will and divine necessity combined?
• What is common, individual and separate in the light of the doctrine of “trinitarianism” (trinity, trinity)?
• If God is truth, goodness and beauty, then where does evil come from in the world and why does the Creator tolerate it?
• How do the truths of revelation expressed in and the truths of human reason relate?

Already in the formulation of problems, one can see the tendency of medieval philosophy towards sacralization (convergence with religious teaching) and moralization (convergence with ethics, the practical orientation of philosophy to justify the rules of behavior of a Christian in the world). Briefly, the specifics of the type of philosophizing of the Middle Ages can be defined as follows...

Main features, features and ideas of medieval philosophy

1. The secondary nature of philosophical truths in relation to the dogmas of the Catholic faith, which is based on two principles: creationism (from Latin creation - creation) and Revelation. The first of them – the creation of the world by God – became the basis of medieval ontology, the second – of medieval epistemology. It should be especially emphasized that not only nature is considered the creation of God, but also as the focus of the wisdom of the Word.
2. Medieval philosophy was characterized by biblical traditionalism and retrospectiveness. The Bible in the eyes of scientists and in the public consciousness was not just a “Book of Books,” but a divinely inspired work, the word of God, a Testament, and thereby an object of faith. The Bible has become the starting source or measure of evaluation of any theories of philosophy. There is no doubt that it contained ideas that were fundamentally different from the pagan worldview. First of all, this is the idea of ​​​​a single, unique God located in the beyond (transcendental) world. This concept excluded polytheism in any form and affirmed the idea of ​​a single essence of the world.
3. Because exegesis—the art of correct interpretation and explanation of the provisions of the Testament—acquired special importance. Accordingly, all philosophy was “exegetical” in its forms. This meant that a lot of attention was paid to the text of the works and ways of interpreting it. The criterion for the truth of the theory was compliance with the spirit and letter of the Bible. A complex hierarchy of authorities was built, where the first place was occupied by the texts of the synoptic (coincident) Gospels, then the texts of the apostolic epistles, biblical prophets, teachers and church fathers, etc. The text became the beginning and end of any philosophical theory; it is analyzed semantically (words and meanings) , conceptual (content, ideas), speculative (text as a basis for one’s own thoughts). In this case, all the achievements of formal logic were used, primarily Aristotelian logic. Pressure from authorities gave rise to the phenomenon of “pseudo-authorship,” when the author attributed his texts either to the prophets of the “Old Testament” or to the apostles, etc., in order to give special value to his work in the eyes of the public.
4. Rationalistic justification of the dogmas of the church, and on early stages– fight against paganism, patristics(teaching of the church fathers). As Catholicism became the dominant ideology of Western Europe, philosophy began to use the positions of ancient philosophers, primarily Aristotle, for apologetics (defense of the faith).
5. In contrast to mysticism, metaphysical methodology appealed to formal logic and scholasticism. Term "scholasticism" comes from the Greek. σχολαστικός - school, scientist. Just as in a medieval school, students memorized sacred texts without the right to evaluate them, so philosophers treated these texts uncritically. The scholastics saw the way to comprehend God in logic and reasoning, and not in sensory contemplation.
6. The philosophy of the Middle Ages was characterized by a tendency towards edification, teaching. This contributed general installation on the value of training and education from the point of view of advancement towards salvation, towards God. The usual form of philosophical treatises is a dialogue between an authoritative teacher and a modest, yes-ying, knowledge-hungry student. The most important quality of a medieval teacher is encyclopedicism, supported by masterly knowledge of the text of Holy Scripture and the rules of formal logic of Aristotle for further conclusions from the sacred books. In the middle of the century we often encounter works in the form of a “sum” of knowledge: “Summa Theology,” “Summa Against the Pagans,” etc.
7. The discussion about the nature of universals that ran like a red thread throughout the Middle Ages(from Latin universalis - general, i.e. general concepts), which reflected the attitude of philosophers to the doctrine of the Holy Trinity (God the Father, God the Son and the Holy Spirit). The positions of the opponents in this dispute tended to two poles – realism (from Latin realis - real) and nominalism (from lat. nomen - name).

According to realists, are truly real only general concepts, rather than single items. Universals exist before things, representing essences, ideas in the divine understanding. As we see, realism had a lot in common with platonism. Realists include: AND.WITH.Eriugena, Anselm of Canterbury, Thomas Aquinas.

Nominalists On the contrary, they believed that universals are names given by man, while concrete things really exist. Nominalism was represented by philosophers such as AND.Roscelin, P.Abelard, U.Occam, I.Duns Scotus.

Both extreme nominalism and extreme realism were condemned by the church. She was more encouraging towards the moderate manifestations of both movements, which were reflected in the works P.Abelard and Thomas Aquinas.

In general, medieval philosophy was optimistic in spirit. She shunned the ancient, soul-corroding skepticism and agnosticism. The world did not seem comprehensible, organized on rational principles, historical (that is, having a beginning from the creation of the world and an end in the form of the Last Judgment). God, of course, was not comprehensible by means of the intellect, but His instructions and ways could be understood through faith, through insight. As a result physical nature the world, history in individual manifestations, a number of moral requirements were comprehended by the human mind, and religious problems - by revelation. Accordingly, there were two truths: worldly and divine (revelations), which were in symbiosis. “True philosophy” used both forms of intellect and intuitive knowledge, insight, and divine revelation. Since “True Philosophy” is “Christian philosophy,” it substantiated the possibility of personal salvation, resurrection from the dead, and the final triumph of the truth of Christianity on a cosmic scale.

Despite all the internal integrity of medieval philosophy, it clearly distinguishes stages patristics and scholastics . Criteria for identifying the specified periods in modern history philosophies differ. However, a clear chronological section can be considered: I-VI centuries. – stage of patristics and XI-XV centuries. – stage of scholasticism. The main personalities in the history of philosophy are generally accepted - representatives of the highest points of development of these stages. The pinnacle of patristics is Augustine the Blessed (354-430), whose ideas determined the development of European philosophy. Thomas Aquinas (1223-1274) - the peak of medieval scholasticism, one of the greatest philosophers of all post-ancient philosophy.

At the stage of patristics, the intellectual formulation and development of Christian dogma and philosophy takes place, in which the philosophical elements of Platonism play a decisive role. At the stage of scholasticism - the systematic development of Christian philosophy under the enormous influence of the philosophical heritage of Aristotle. The dogmas of the church take on a complete form.

He is rightfully considered the systematizer of orthodox scholasticism. Thomas Aquinas . The main method of his philosophy is the appeal to common sense when analyzing the tenets of Catholicism. Following Aristotle, he consolidated the understanding of the relationship between the ideal and the material as the relationship of the “principle of form” with the “principle of matter”. The combination of form and matter gives rise to a world of concrete things and phenomena. The human soul is also a formative principle (essence), but it receives its complete individual existence only when united with the body (existence).

Thomas Aquinas expressed the idea of ​​harmony between reason and faith. In his work “Summa Theologies” he cited five proofs of the existence of God, substantiated the idea of ​​the immortality of the soul, and considered human happiness as knowledge and contemplation of God. In 1323 Thomas Aquinas was proclaimed a saint, and in 1879 his teachings became the official doctrine of the Catholic Church.

The dominance of religion in the Middle Ages was so all-encompassing that even social movements had a religious character (numerous heresies, the Reformation). And the intellectual opposition to Catholicism periodically called for limiting the role of faith in relation to knowledge, which was reflected in the emergence theories of dual truth, deism (from lat. dues - God) and pantheism (from Greek πάν - everything and θεός - God).

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Used literature:

1. Philosophy: Basic methodological handbook for students of technical universities (Russian language) / Ed. L.O.Alekseeva, R.O.Dodonova, D.E.Muzi, T.B.Necheporenko, V.G.Popova. – 4 types. – Donetsk: DonNTU, 2010. – 173 p.
2. Philosophy: Textbook for higher education educational institutions. – Rostov n/d.: “Phoenix”, 1996 – 576 p.

Introduction.

Main features of medieval philosophy.

Features of medieval philosophy

Patristics. Formation of theocentric type of philosophizing

Representatives.

Schools (directions) of medieval philosophy (in the table)

Conclusion.

Literature

Introduction.

The topic of my work is “The originality and features of medieval philosophy, its theocentric character, schools and representatives of medieval philosophy,” which means that in this work we will consider medieval philosophy. But in order to study medieval philosophy more deeply, we will look not only at the topic points, but much deeper. We will look at medieval philosophy from all its sides.

The Middle Ages is the period of the 7th-15th centuries, although this periodization is largely conditional. The role of the church in the life of Western European medieval society, which many historians call Christian society or the Christian world, was comprehensive: religion and the church filled the entire life of a person in the feudal era from birth to death. The church claimed to govern society and performed many functions that later became the property of the state. The medieval church was organized on strictly hierarchical principles. It was headed by the Roman high priest - the pope, who had his own state in Central Italy; archbishops and bishops in all European countries were subordinate to him. These were the largest feudal lords, possessing entire principalities and belonging to the top of feudal society. Having monopolized culture, science, and literacy in a society consisting mainly of warriors and peasants, the church had enormous resources that subordinated the man of the feudal era to it. Skillfully, using these means, the church concentrated enormous power in its hands: kings and lords, needing its help, showered it with gifts and privileges, trying to “buy” its favor and assistance. It is impossible to imagine the spiritual quest of a medieval person outside the church. It was the knowledge of the world and God, inspired by church ideals, that gave birth to the colorful, diverse, living culture of the Middle Ages. It was the church that created universities and schools, encouraged theological debates and printing. All this determines the fact that the main characteristic of European medieval philosophy is theocentrism (God in the center). During this period, philosophy develops within the framework of theology, performing rather an auxiliary function, which is why most authors call it the handmaiden of theology. Theological works are aimed at rationally justifying the tenets of the Christian faith, and philosophy plays the role of a methodological basis, without pretending to find the truth, which is interpreted as revelation. The central problems of medieval philosophy can be called the problem of the relationship between faith and reason, which is easily interpreted as the problem of the relationship between philosophy and theology, the dispute about universals and various ways of proving the existence of God, formulated in the works of different authors - the most significant should be considered the works of Anselm of Canterbury and Thomas Aquinas.

Main features of medieval philosophy. Medieval theological philosophy is the leading philosophical direction, widespread in Europe in the 5th - 16th centuries, which recognized God as the highest existing principle, and all the world around us- His creations. Theological philosophy began to emerge in the Roman Empire in the 1st – 5th centuries. AD based on early Christianity, heresies and ancient philosophy and reached its highest peak in the 5th – 13th centuries. AD, in the period between the collapse of the Western Roman Empire (476) and the beginning of the Renaissance. The most prominent representatives of medieval theological philosophy were: Tertullian of Carthage (160-220), Augustus the Blessed (354-430), Boethius (480-524), Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109), William of Ockham ( 1285-1349), Nicholas of Hautrecourt (XIV century). The following main features of medieval theological philosophy can be distinguished: - theocentrism - main reason of all things, the highest reality, the main subject of philosophical research was God; - little attention was paid to the study of space itself, nature, and the phenomena of the surrounding world, since they were considered the creation of God; - dogmas (truths that do not need proof) about creation (of everything by God) and revelation (of God about Himself - in the Bible) dominated; - the contradiction between materialism and idealism is smoothed out; - man stood out from nature and was declared a creation of God, standing above nature (the divine essence of man was emphasized); - the principle of human free will within the framework of divine predestination was proclaimed; - the idea was put forward about the resurrection of a person from the dead (both soul and body) in the future with godly behavior; - the dogma was put forward about the salvation of the surrounding world and humanity through the incarnation of God in the human body - Jesus Christ (incarnation) and Jesus Christ taking upon Himself the sins of all humanity; - the world was considered knowable through the concept of God, which can be realized through faith in God. Medieval theological philosophy was distinguished by self-containment, traditionalism, a focus on the past, isolation from the real world, belligerence, dogmatism, edification, and teaching. Ideas (dogmas) of creation and revelation as fundamental in medieval philosophy and theology. The fundamental dogmas of medieval philosophy and theology were the dogma of creation and the dogma of revelation. According to the dogma of creation: - God created the world around us from nothing; - the creation of the world is the result of an act of Divine will; - the world was created thanks to the omnipotence of God; - nature cannot create itself; - the only creative principle in the Universe is God; - God is eternal, constant and penetrating everything; - only God is true being; - the world created by God is not a true existence, it is secondary in relation to God; - since the world does not have self-sufficiency and arose at the will of another (God), it is impermanent, changeable and temporary; - there is no clear boundary between God and His creation. According to the dogma of revelation: - the world can be known only by knowing God; - God is inaccessible to knowledge; - despite the fact that God is unknowable, He Himself allowed Himself to be known (gave information about Himself) through revelation - the Bible; - the only way to know God and all things is to interpret the Bible; - God can be known only in a supernatural way, thanks to a special human ability - faith. The problem of good and evil occupies a special place in medieval theological philosophy. The problem of good and evil is solved based on the idea of ​​creation: - the world around us was entirely created by God; - God is the bearer and concentration of goodness and justice; - therefore, the world around us is initially filled with goodness; - evil is brought into the world by the devil (Satan) - a fallen angel who rebelled against God; - since evil initially did not exist in the world, it often disguises itself as good and achieves its dark goals; - there is a constant struggle in the world between good and evil, but since the world is the creation of God and God is good, good will ultimately triumph over evil. Regarding the problem of good and evil, the theological philosophy of the Middle Ages was optimistic. Medieval theological philosophy, unlike ancient philosophy, practically does not contrast matter and idea (form), materialism and idealism. However, what ancient Greek philosophers (for example, Aristotle) ​​considered a single essence - being, theological philosophy divides into: - being (existence) - existence; - essence - essence. Existence - being, existence shows whether a thing exists at all, that is, it exists or does not exist. Essence is an essence that characterizes a thing: - what is a thing? - what thing? - why does it exist? Ancient philosophers saw essence and existence in an indissoluble unity, as a single essence - being. According to theological philosophy, essence can exist without being, without existence. To come into existence, an entity must be created by God. In other words, the incorporeal essence hovers in the consciousness of God and only by an act of his will and thanks to his inherent ability to create becomes a material being. Existence can be known by sensory sensations and experience, but essence can only be known by reason. Only in God does essence and existence coincide. The significance of medieval theological philosophy for the subsequent development of philosophy is that it: - became a connecting link between ancient philosophy and the philosophy of the Renaissance and modern times; - preserved and developed a number of ancient philosophical ideas, since it arose on the basis of the ancient philosophy of Christian teaching; - contributed to the division of philosophy into new spheres (in addition to ontology - the doctrine of being, which completely merged with ancient philosophy, epistemology stood out - an independent doctrine of knowledge); - contributed to the division of idealism into objective and subjective; laid the foundation for the emergence in the future of empirical (Bacon, Hobbes, Locke) and rationalistic (Descartes) directions of philosophy as a result of the practice of nominalists, respectively, to rely on experience (empiricism) and increased interest in the problem of self-consciousness (I am a concept, rationalism); - aroused interest in understanding the historical process; - put forward the idea of ​​optimism, expressed in faith in the victory of good over evil and in resurrection.

Features of the Middle Ages and its philosophical reflections

The Middle Ages are called “dark”, “gloomy”. The attitude towards medieval culture is ambivalent: from recognizing it as rude and inhuman to glorifying it for its religious and mystical impulses. “Could the Middle Ages even be a complete hell in which humanity spent a thousand years and from which the Renaissance extracted this poor humanity?” - asked Academician N.I. Konrad. And he answered: “To think so means, first of all, to underestimate a person. Gothic architecture, radiant poetry of troubadours, chivalric romance, cheerful folk farces, exciting spectacles - mysteries and miracles... The Middle Ages are one of the great eras in the history of mankind.”

In historical science, the Middle Ages period in Western Europe dated back to the 5th–15th centuries. However, in relation to philosophy, such dating is not entirely correct. Medieval European philosophy is Christian philosophy. Christian philosophy began to take shape much earlier. The first Christian philosophers developed their ideas in the 2nd century. n. e. The philosophy of early Christianity was called apologetics, and its representatives were called apologists, since their writings were aimed at protecting and justifying Christian doctrine.

The boundaries between antiquity and the Middle Ages are blurred and unclear. Therefore, paradoxically, medieval philosophy began earlier than ancient philosophy ended. For several centuries, two methods of philosophizing existed in parallel, mutually influencing each other.

Features of the style of philosophical thinking of the Middle Ages:

1. If the ancient worldview was cosmocentric, then the medieval one was theocentric. For Christianity, the reality that determines everything in the world is not nature, the cosmos, but God. God is a person who exists above this world.

2. The originality of the philosophical thinking of the Middle Ages lay in its close connection with religion. Church dogma was the starting point and basis of philosophical thinking. The content of philosophical thought acquired a religious form.

3. The idea of ​​the real existence of a supernatural principle (God) forces us to look at the world, the meaning of history, human goals and values ​​from a special angle. The medieval worldview is based on the idea of ​​creation (the doctrine of the creation of the world by God out of nothing - creationism).

Christianity brought into the philosophical environment the idea of ​​​​linearity of history. History moves forward towards Judgment Day. History is understood as a manifestation of the will of God, as the implementation of a predetermined divine plan for the salvation of man (providentialism).

Christian philosophy strives to comprehend the internal personal mechanisms of assessment - conscience, religious motive, self-awareness. The orientation of a person’s entire life towards the salvation of the soul is a new value preached by Christianity.

4. The philosophical thinking of the Middle Ages was retrospective, looking to the past. For the medieval consciousness, “the more ancient, the more authentic, the more authentic, the truer.”

5. The style of philosophical thinking in the Middle Ages was distinguished by traditionalism. For the medieval philosopher, any form of innovation was considered a sign of pride, therefore, excluding subjectivity as much as possible from creative process, he had to adhere to the established pattern, canon, tradition. What was valued was not creativity and originality of thought, but erudition and adherence to tradition.

6. The philosophical thinking of the Middle Ages was authoritarian and relied on authorities. The most authoritative source is the Bible. The medieval philosopher turns to biblical authority for confirmation of his opinion.

7. Philosophy of the Middle Ages - commentary philosophy. A significant part of medieval works was written in the form of commentary. The commentary was mainly on the Holy Scriptures. The preference given in religion to authority, a statement sanctified by tradition, over an opinion expressed on one’s own behalf, encouraged similar behavior in the sphere of philosophical creativity. The leading genre of philosophical literature in the Middle Ages was the genre of commentaries.

8. As a feature, the exegetical nature of medieval philosophizing should be noted. For the medieval thinker, the starting point for theorizing is the text of the Holy Scriptures. This text is the source of truth and the final explanatory authority. The thinker sets his task not to analyze and criticize the text, but only to interpret it. The text, sanctified by tradition, in which not a word can be changed, despotically rules the philosopher’s thought, sets its limit and measure. Therefore, Christian philosophizing can be understood as philosophical exegesis (interpretation) of the sacred text. The philosophy of the Middle Ages is the philosophy of the text.

9. The style of philosophical thinking of the Middle Ages is distinguished by the desire for impersonality. Many works of this era have come down to us anonymously. The medieval philosopher does not speak on his own behalf, he argues on behalf of “Christian philosophy.”

10. Philosophical thinking of the Middle Ages was characterized by didacticism (teaching, edification). Almost all the famous thinkers of that time were either preachers or teachers of theological schools. Hence, as a rule, the “teacher”, edifying character of philosophical systems.

11. Medieval philosophy, unlike ancient philosophy, highlights:

Being (existence) - existence;

Essence - essence.

Existence (being, existence) shows whether a thing exists at all (that is, it exists or does not exist). Essence (essence) characterizes a thing.

If ancient philosophers saw essence and existence in an indissoluble unity, then, according to Christian philosophy, essence can take place without being (without existence). To become an existent (being), an entity must be created by God.

Medieval philosophical thought went through three stages in its development:

1. Patristics (lat. pater - father) - works of the church fathers.

Initially, the “father of the church” was a name given to a spiritual mentor with recognized teaching authority. Later, this concept was clarified and began to include four characteristics: 1) holiness of life; 2) antiquity; 3) orthodoxy of teaching; 4) official recognition of the church.

The works written by the church fathers laid the foundations of Christian dogmas. True philosophy, from the point of view of the church fathers, is identical to theology, faith always takes precedence over reason, and truth is the truth of Revelation. Patristics, based on the role it played in society, is divided into apologetic and systematic. According to the linguistic criterion - into Greek and Latin, or (which is somewhat more conventional) into Western and Eastern. In the East, systematics prevailed, in the West, apologetics.

The pinnacle of Latin patristics is the work of Aurelius Augustine; the classics of Greek patristics are represented by Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus and Gregory of Nyssa.

2. Scholasticism - a type of religious philosophy, characterized by a fundamental subordination to the primacy of theology, the combination of dogmatic premises with rationalistic methodology and a special interest in formal logical problems.

The greatest scholastic of Western European philosophy was Thomas Aquinas. For example, the debate between Thomas Aquinas and Albertus Magnus in the courtyard of the University of Paris on the topic “Does a mole have eyes” was essentially scholastic? This verbal tournament lasted for several hours - and all to no avail. Each stood his ground, earnestly and unshakably. But then a gardener happened to overhear this learned debate and offer his services. “If you want,” he says, “I’ll bring you a real live mole.” This will resolve your dispute.” “No way. Never! We are arguing in principle: does a principled person have principled eyes.”

By scholasticism is meant (this is obvious from the example given) also formal knowledge, fruitless thinking, divorced from life, from practice. This is where the expression “scholastic theorizing” comes from. An example of scholastic thinking can be questions of this kind: can God create a stone that he himself cannot lift? Or: which came first - the chicken or the egg? How many devils can fit on the tip of one needle? (The last question sounds especially relevant today, during the rampant drug addiction).

3. Mysticism is a philosophy that comprehends the religious practice of the unity of man with God, the immersion of the contemplating spirit in the ocean of divine light. If in scholasticism the speculative-logical aspect prevailed, then in mysticism the contemplative aspect prevailed. All mystical teachings tend toward irrationalism, intuitionism, and deliberate paradox; they express themselves not so much in the language of concepts as in the language of symbols. A prominent representative of the mysticism of the late Middle Ages in Western Europe was the German thinker Meister Eckhart.

Patristics. Formation of theocentric type of philosophizing

Theocentrism is a historical form of expression of the subject, his special

places in the universe. In conditions when a person is still bound by the closest ties

with all natural realities and tribal relationships, but is already beginning

be aware of your specificity, the only acceptable principle

turns out to be the principle of absolute personality, the principle of God. The role of the subject is already

highlighted, but not so much as to be fully classified as separate

to people. The principle of absolute personality is the result of something deeper than

antiquity, understanding of the subjective.

Having analyzed the main provisions of the philosophy of the Middle Ages, we can

to say that medieval philosophy as a whole is theocentric: everything

the basic concepts of medieval thinking are correlated with God and

are determined through it.

Patristics (II-VI centuries AD)

Patristics got its name from the Latin word “patris”, meaning “fathers of the church”. Accordingly, this is the period of the Christian church fathers, who laid the foundations of Christian, and, consequently, medieval philosophy. Patristics can be divided into several periods:

1) The Apostolic period (until the middle of the 2nd century) - the time of activity of the apostolic evangelists.

2) Apologetics (mid-II century - early IV) - Apologists were the name given to educated Christians who defended Christianity from pagan philosophy. To defend Christianity, apologists resorted to the help of ancient and Greek philosophy, using allegory and logical evidence, trying to show that the beliefs of the pagans are absurd, their philosophy has no unity and is full of contradictions, that Christian theology is the only philosophy that brings people the same truth for everyone. The most prominent works that have survived to this day were the apologies of Justin, Tatian, and Tertullian.

3) Mature patristics (IV-VI) – There are eastern (Greek) and western (Latin) patristics. Thanks to the Greek language, Eastern patristics is more closely connected with ancient philosophy than Western philosophy. The most famous figures of Eastern patristics: Gregory the Theologian, Athanasius of Alexandria, John Chrysostom and others; western: Aurelius Augustine, Ambrose of Milan, Jerome. The main problems of patristics: the formation of creeds, the problem of three hypostases, Christology, creationism and others.

Scholasticism(VII-XIV)

The word "scholasticism" comes from the word schola (school) who came to Latin from Greek, which is why scholasticism is often called school philosophy. Unlike the church fathers, who relied on their own reason and intuition, the scholastics used rational ways of knowing God. There were three main directions in scholasticism: realism, nominalism and conceptualism.

Realism: The medieval concept of realism has nothing to do with modern meaning this word. Realism meant the doctrine according to which only general concepts, or universals, and not individual objects have true reality. According to medieval realists, universals exist before things, representing thoughts, ideas in the divine mind. And only thanks to this the human mind is able to cognize the essence of things, for this essence is nothing more than a universal concept. Realists, sharing the ideas of Plato, believed that general concepts are a form of essential being. The most famous followers of realism: Aurelius Augustine, Anselm of Canterbury, who was called the second Augustine in England. Anselm of Canterbury is famous for his ontological proof of the existence of God - he argued that the very concept of God proves his existence.

Nominalism: The term "nominalism" comes from the Latin "nomen" - "name". According to nominalists, general concepts are only names; they do not have any independent existence and are formed by our mind by abstracting certain features common to a number of things. For example, the concept of “man” is obtained by discarding all the characteristics characteristic of each person individually, and concentrating on what is common to all: a person is a living being, endowed with more intelligence than any other animal. This definition can, in principle, be clarified: a person has one head, two arms, two legs, etc., but this is already unnecessary, since the first definition already unambiguously defines the essence of a person. Thus, according to the teaching of nominalists, universals exist not before things, but after things. The most famous nominalist was Pierre Abelard. Conceptualists occupied an intermediate position between realists and nominalists, believing that being is independent things within their essence.

2. Ideas of medieval philosophy

Medieval philosophy was inextricably linked with Christianity, therefore general philosophical and Christian ideas are closely intertwined in it. The main idea of ​​medieval philosophy is theocentrism.

Theocentrism: According to the principle of theocentrism in the Middle Ages, God was the center of everything. God is the source of all being and good; the highest goal of life is seen in serving God. In the Middle Ages, God and religion were the main objects of philosophy; it was God and religion that were studied by its servants at that time.

Monotheism: Unlike ancient polytheism - polytheism, medieval philosophy recognizes only one God.

The idea of ​​the god-man: In the Middle Ages, man only just began to realize his specificity. The idea of ​​human exceptionalism will fully manifest itself only in the Renaissance (anthropocentrism), but its origins date back to the Middle Ages, and the Gospel will play a huge role here. Jesus Christ is God, the son of God, but at the same time he is also a man, much closer to the ordinary than his father.

Creationism: The idea of ​​God creating the world out of nothing. If God creates, then, albeit to a lesser extent, man must create. However, there was an opposite point of view that creativity is the prerogative of God alone, and on the part of people it was considered blasphemy. Such ideas held back the development of technology.

The idea of ​​creationism elevates God above nature. Unlike the ancient gods, who were related to nature, Christian God stands above nature, on the other side of it and therefore is a transcendental God. The active creative principle is, as it were, withdrawn from nature, from the cosmos, and transferred to God; in medieval philosophy, the cosmos is therefore no longer a self-sufficient and eternal being, is not a living and animate whole, as many of the Greek philosophers considered it.

From the idea of ​​creationism follows the so-called monistic principle: there is only one absolute principle - God, and everything else is his creation. Only God possesses genuine existence; he is ascribed those attributes with which ancient philosophers ascribed existence. He is eternal, unchangeable, self-identical, does not depend on anything else and is the source of everything that exists. Aurelius Augustine (354-430) argues that God is the highest being, the highest substance, the highest form, the highest good.

Providentialism: History is understood as “the path to the Kingdom of God” - the fate of the world is predetermined and will end in the apocalypse. From various calculations, different dates were named for the coming Last Judgment - it was expected in 1491, and in 1666, and in other years, however, as we see, these calculations turned out to be erroneous.

The idea of ​​the commandments: The commandments are an agreement between God and man, the first list of crimes that a person can commit. A person who violates these commandments will be judged not by the ruler or the state, but by God himself. Only faith, and not fear of punishment, prevents a person from violating them.

The idea of ​​original sin: Adam and Eve violated God's prohibition and tasted the forbidden fruit. For this they were expelled from Eden, but became free and independent. By committing the first sin, man proved his right to self-determination.

The idea of ​​the resurrection of the soul: In place of faith in the transmigration of souls comes faith in the resurrection of the soul - now having died, a righteous person will find himself again not on mortal earth, but in better world- Kingdom of God. Life is considered only as a short stay on earth, compared to eternal life in paradise, and death is only a departure from it.

The idea of ​​the holiness of the body: Not only the soul is holy, but also the body. Christ is made of flesh and blood, just like man.

The idea of ​​universal equality: All people are equal, since God created them equal, and in heaven people are also equal. For God and religion there is no peasant or king - there is only a Christian.

Hermeneutics: Explanation and interpretation of biblical texts.

Representatives of medieval philosophy

1. Philosophy of Augustine Aurelius

In the IV-V centuries. Global geopolitical changes are taking place in Europe. The Roman Empire disintegrates after the invasion of barbarian tribes, and a new period in history begins, which was later called the Middle Ages. It ends by the 15th century. Radical changes are also taking place in spiritual life, primarily in religion, philosophy and culture. Ancient forms of religious views, as well as the pagan religions of the peoples inhabiting Europe, are being replaced by Christianity. Gradually, Christianity becomes the basis of the ideological system of the entire European civilization.

With the victory of Christianity over other religious movements, European philosophical thought became almost completely dependent on the church. From that time on, the main task of philosophy became the substantiation and development of Christian dogmas. However, in the study of the history of philosophy one cannot neglect this period, which lasted almost a millennium. Firstly, because it was a connecting link in its development between ancient philosophy and the new. Secondly, it should be borne in mind that Christian doctrine has always had and has its own philosophical content and expresses a very definite attitude towards the attempts to solve universal philosophical problems that preceded its formation. Christian views one way or another transform philosophical concepts and thereby have a far-reaching influence, which continues to this day, on the development of philosophy.

Without considering here the specific religious content of Christian views, we must nevertheless present, at least in general outline, the course of development of Christian philosophy as a relatively independent movement of human thought.

There are two large periods of Christian philosophy, separated by centuries: the first is patristic, begins with the writings of the holy fathers in the 1st and 2nd centuries and ends by the 5th century, when its influence ended with the last of the great teachers of the church, Aurelius Augustine (Blessed) (354-430). ). In the future, patristics are continued only by minor authors. The second period with the dominance of scholastic philosophy, famous representatives of which appeared in the 9th century. In the XIV-XV centuries. scholasticism, and with it church philosophy in general, are losing their former authority under the onslaught of Renaissance philosophy.

In the early period of the existence of patristics, the establishment of the official dogmas of the Christian church set philosophers and theologians with a single task: to determine the relationship between science, philosophy and Christian doctrine. The central point of the religious worldview of this period is the legends about the personality of Christ and his teachings. The influence of this teaching and its elevation above all existing religious ideas were determined by the hope in the love and mercy of God. It filled the souls of its followers with hope for the future and made them indifferent to the vicissitudes of current life. This religious worldview is spreading among fairly educated layers of society familiar with ancient culture. The doctrine of Plato's ideas, Aristotle's monotheism and other teachings of Ancient Greece form the philosophical content of Christian philosophy. This interaction with philosophy takes on the character of dogmas, thanks to which the church fathers formulate their beliefs in the form of scientific propositions.

In contrast to all tendencies that try to rationalize the content of faith or give it a contemplative content, the main current of philosophical thought of this period is directed towards preserving its absolutely mystical character. On the basis of mysticism, Christian philosophy consistently solves the main problems of metaphysics: cosmological, theological and ethical. The cosmological mythology of ancient religions about the creation of the world from primal matter and chaos, the Neoplatonist doctrine of the creation of matter as a sensory process between a purely spiritual essence and the physical world, and finally, the Aristotelian doctrine of the eternity of the world, which eliminates the act of creation altogether - all these doctrines are supplanted by the idea of ​​creation world out of nothing. At the same time, the idea of ​​God becomes more sublime, the process of creation clearly exceeds human strength.

Augustine's doctrine of atonement combines man's dependence on God, required by faith, with the desire of the soul, aware of its guilt, to feel its responsibility for it. This is clearly revealed, although incomprehensible by any rational interpretation, in the dispute between Augustine and his opponent Pelagius. Pelagius argues that the sinner himself participates in his sin, and he must atone for it with good deeds. Here concepts borrowed from human relationships of guilt and retribution are transferred to the kingdom of God. Augustine chooses a purely mystical path. Discarding all analogy with earthly affairs, he ascribes absolute significance both to the sin of man and to the mercy of God.

Thus, Augustine's theological speculations are more energetically directed towards philosophical questions themselves. Augustine's system includes ideas that had great value for future philosophy - questions about thinking and will, sources of knowledge, motives of human actions, psychology, etc. Thanks to Augustine, philosophical positions related to Christianity are turned entirely to the needs of Christian education. Well-known philosophical concepts acquire significant transformation and development under the influence of Christian ideas. A kind of renewal is found in Augustine's philosophy, first of all, in Plato's doctrine of ideas, as well as the doctrine of the state.

From Plato's doctrine of ideas, Augustine borrows, first of all, the idea of ​​the super-worldly significance of ideas, but, combining it with the Christian thought of creation, he transforms ideas into the thoughts of the Creator before the act of creation. Ideas are thus given a purely spiritual content. Augustine's ideas are first subjective, then objective; but in the process of the formation of concepts in human cognition, they again become subjective. When forming concepts, a person thinks nothing other than the ideas of the Creator; with God, thoughts come before things, with man - after things, as a result of their contemplation. Souls become independent substances, things contained in human creative thinking. The soul is no longer the life-giving principle of the body and the life-giving principle of matter in general, as in Plato. She herself is a thinking entity. Therefore, Augustine, in order to substantiate the spiritual nature of the human soul, proceeds from the self-certainty of thinking, just as Descartes later did.

Another important part of Platonism, which was updated by Augustine in relation to the needs of Christianity, is the doctrine of the state. Here Plato's ideal state, ruled by wise men and philosophers, expands to a universal state of the whole world (civitas Dei). It was founded not by people, but by God himself. The Church, in accordance with its divine origin, is eternal and unlimited. The Areopagitics had a significant influence on the development of Christian thought. If most Christian philosophers of the IV-V centuries. relied on the rational elements of Neoplatonism, then in the Areopagitics its mystical features clearly appear. Orthodox thinkers, it should be noted, paid their main attention precisely to the mystical knowledge of God and the mystical way of comprehending the truth.

After Augustine, the Latin West experienced a long period of stagnation in religious philosophy, caused by the invasion of barbarians. Ancient philosophy is gradually being forgotten.

The goals of church education in the subsequent period prevailed over other tasks, since the church subjugated all education, in which the foundations of the pedagogical and theological systems were formed, called scholasticism, i.e. school learning. The most important concepts of patristics flow into the scholasticism of the early Middle Ages. The goals of scholasticism were to organize and make accessible Christian dogma for easy understanding by believers. Christian doctrine is taught in European educational institutions; in universities, theological faculties from the time of their establishment (13th century) began to be considered the main ones. Moreover, philosophy was recognized as the main means of streamlining Christian dogma. With the help of reason, theologians believed, it is easier to penetrate the truth of faith and create a logical and demonstrative system of Christian doctrine.

The main ideas remain the same: theocentrism - the source of all being, goodness, beauty and justice is God; creationism - everything that exists was created by God from nothing; providentialism -- God rules the world he created, including the behavior of the individual; man himself is created in the image and likeness of God.

Boethius (480-524) is called the father of scholasticism. It was he who formulated the questions that became fundamental to scholastic philosophy for several centuries: proof of the existence of God, free will and its compatibility with providence, the origin of the world, the nature of evil, etc. The tasks of education required bringing Christian philosophy into a fairly integral and consistent system. Faith remains in first place in scholasticism, followed by knowledge. Hence the desire to present the religious truths of revelation as reasonably necessary knowledge. That is why scholasticism develops methods of ontological proof of truth. This method is determined for the scholastics by the supersensible, transcendental nature of the objects of faith, inaccessible to any other argument.

From the end of the 12th century. gradually secular interests begin to have a greater influence on philosophy. This, of course, is facilitated by familiarity with the physical and mathematical works of Aristotle. A more realistic and empirical way of thinking raises doubts about the correctness of the ontological evidence for the existence of God. By the 14th century these tendencies lead to skepticism, which in matters of secular knowledge gives preference to experience, but preserves the mystical character of the truths of faith. Thus, the fall of scholasticism and the independent development of secular sciences gradually matured from the beginning of the period called Modern Time.

One of the important problems of early scholasticism was the problem of universals - the relationship between the general and the particular. Two doctrines have emerged around the solution to this problem: realism and nominalism. Extreme realism, continuing the traditions of Plato, argued that only the general and unified really exist. Everything individual and plural is just a deception of sensory perception. Contrary to this, nominalism showed that only individual objects really exist. They form many different things. Everything that we call general and unified has no meaning outside of language. This is the result of our habit of using terms. What attracted the church fathers to this seemingly purely philosophical discussion between realism and nominalism? The fact is that in terms of solving a theological problem, neither extreme realism nor extreme nominalism was acceptable for the church. They logically led either to the denial of the reality of the divine Trinity, or to the denial of the unity of God.

In the first scholastic period, the dominant direction of thought was akin to Plato's idea of ​​ideas - realism, and in its extreme form. An outstanding representative of this period, Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109), using for the first time the ontological method, tried to prove not only the existence of God, but also specific Christian dogmas of faith, such as the doctrine of the Trinity and the atonement. He was opposed by I. Rosselip (c. 1050 - c. 1120), having already headed the 11th century. nominalism, in which the aspirations of the pantheistic concept, directed against the unity of the Holy Trinity, were revived in an updated form. This was the first period of flowering of scholastic philosophy (theological), when logic was developed in connection with the studies of Aristotle carried over from previous times.

The second period was introduced in the 12th century. P. Abelard (1079--1142), and then in the 13th century. - Albertus Magnus (c. 1193--1280) and Thomas Aquinas (1225/1226-- 1274.) They showed an increasingly growing interest in secular science and the resulting desire to supplement theology with a philosophy that unites all branches of knowledge. This expansion of secular issues was also facilitated by familiarity with the works of Aristotle in Latin translation through Arab philosophers of previous centuries (Avicenna and Averroes).

At the end of the 13th century, the dispute between the followers of Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus (c. 1266-- 1308) turns into a dispute about free will, in which the deterministic understanding of human behavior is condemned. But the indeterministic understanding reaches its extreme form, which comes into conflict with the teaching of the church about grace that existed until then. This indeterministic doctrine of redemption through the holiness of one's own will became a necessity of faith. The believing soul now seeks consolation not in the feeling of unconditional dependence, but mainly in hope in its own strength. Thus, from scholastic indeterminism in the third period of scholasticism, nominalism developed, which became from the beginning of the 14th century. the dominant direction.

In the person of Duns Scotus and W. Ockham (c. 1285-1349), English nominalism became the harbinger of experimental philosophy of the New Age. “The orientation towards unity and the empirical,” notes one of the largest German historians of philosophy of the 20th century, W. Wundt, “characterizing the position of nominalism in the universal scholastic dispute, is at the same time the reverse side of the change in the position that nominalism occupies in relation to the truths faith and to the question of the possibility of their knowledge by the human mind. Here the classical scholasticism of the 13th century took a significant step back in relation to the first period of the heyday of scholastic philosophy with its steady application of the ontological method."

With the separation of faith and knowledge, nominalism at the same time undermines the main vital principle of scholasticism. Essentially, he recognizes the task of giving it the appearance of a scientifically organized system as insoluble for scholasticism. Nominalism, completing the medieval period of philosophy, becomes the initial link in the formation of a new philosophy. Scholasticism one way or another continues its life in later versions of its restoration. Its main support is no longer nominalism, but rather the philosophy of Thomas Aquinas. At the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII century. Western European scholasticism receives new impetus for its development. The fact is that during this period, mainly during the Crusades, Europeans began to become acquainted with the culture of the Arabic-speaking East. The meeting with Arab culture was of great importance in the sense that the teachings of ancient philosophers, and primarily Aristotle, were popular in this world. His works have not only been translated into Arabic, but commented on in detail by Arab thinkers. In Europe, Aristotle was far from completely known. In addition, the study and dissemination of Aristotelianism was officially prohibited, since its teachings were used by many Christian theologians who were considered heretics.

However, Aristotelianism is gradually becoming more widespread, especially in non-church schools. The works of Aristotle are translated into Latin, first from Arabic and then from Greek. In the Catholic Church, the opinion is gradually gaining ground that the use of evidence of the truth of Christian dogmas based on Aristotle - best way their defense, since Platonism and Neoplatonism do not provide answers to all questions that arise. Already in 1245, the study of Aristotle was allowed without any restrictions, and later, in 50-60. 13th century Rome officially commissions several Christian philosophers to rework the teachings of Aristotle in the Christian Catholic spirit, which was mainly carried out by Thomas Aquinas.

The development of philosophy and philosophical thinking goes back to the distant past. Epochs, views, philosophers, rules and orders, people changed. In the understanding of society, religion and philosophy stand separately, but in no era were these concepts opposed to each other. They developed in parallel, intertwining and deviating from each other at different times. The Middle Ages is a time when philosophy became as closely related to religion as possible; these two concepts not only identified each other, but also complemented each other.

Medieval philosophy: features and characteristics

Medieval philosophy is a period when there was a change in ideological guidelines and philosophers. The norms, ideals of the world and human roles in it are changing. The periodization of this era has various options. The most established and accepted period in modern world– II-XIV centuries. Since it intersects with Christianity, it is logical to consider it the beginning of the period when the Bible appeared. Unlike ancient philosophy, which studied primordial origins and human nature during three stages of its development, medieval philosophy is associated with theology - the doctrine of God. The following features of medieval philosophy are distinguished:

1. Theocentrism is a reality that determines that everything that exists is God, who is presented as a person above the world.
2. Philosophical thinking during the Middle Ages acquired a religious character and was associated with the church.
3. Thinking about the supernatural changes a person’s worldview. A reassessment of history begins, a search for goals and meaning in life.
4. Retrospective thinking - “the more ancient, the more present, the more present, the truer.”
5. Traditionalism - the emphasis of medieval philosophy was on the denial of innovation, the use of which was considered pride and sin. The value was not creativity and individualism, but adherence to tradition.
6. Authoritarianism - turning to the Bible.
7. Commentary. The commentary genre prevailed over other genres in the Middle Ages.
8. The source of philosophical knowledge (holy scripture) cannot be analyzed or criticized, only its interpretation is allowed.
9. Didictism is inherent in the philosophy of the Middle Ages. Therefore, philosophy takes on the character of teaching and preaching.

In addition to theocentrism, the following features are also characteristic of medieval philosophy:

1. Monotheism - God is not only one, but also different from all things.
2. Creationism is an understanding of the world as creation by God out of nothing.
3. Providentialism is the continuous implementation of the divine plan - the salvation of the world and man throughout history.
4. Eschatologism is the doctrine of the end of the historical process, and the presentation of man as a special being who is like God in sinlessness, holiness and love.

Development of medieval philosophy

The philosophy of the Middle Ages was devoid of skepticism and the previous period - antiquity. The world no longer seemed understandable and comprehensible; its knowledge occurred through faith. There are three known stages in the development of medieval philosophy:

1. Patristics is literature left by the church fathers. These were considered spiritual mentors with a certain teaching authority. Over time, this concept expanded its meaning and began to consist of 4 main characteristics: holiness of life, antiquity, orthodoxy of teaching, official acceptance of the church. The foundations of Christian dogmas were laid in patristics. True philosophy was equated with theology. According to their role in society, patristics are divided into apologetic and systematic, according to linguistic criteria - into Greek and Latin, or Eastern and Western. The most important issues patristics was a question of the relationship between faith and knowledge, religion and philosophy. Religion is based on faith, and philosophy is based on knowledge. Since this was the time of the dominance of Christianity, the primacy of religion was undeniable, but it was necessary to come to the conclusion of what to do with philosophy: leave it as a support for religion, and further weave it into a tight thread, or reject it as an ungodly activity that harms religion and faith.
2. Scholasticism is the maximum subordination of theology, the unification of dogmatic premises and rationalistic methodology, interest in formal logical problems. The goal of scholasticism is the accessibility of dogma for ordinary people. Early scholasticism revived interest in knowledge. The main problems of the development of early scholasticism were: the relationship of faith and knowledge, the problem of universals, the coordination of Aristotelian logic and other forms of knowledge, the coordination of mysticism and religious experience. The heyday of scholasticism is the time of the emergence of universities and the widespread dissemination of the works of Aristotle. Late scholasticism is the time of decline of medieval philosophy. The old school systems are subject to criticism, new ideas are not introduced.
3. Mysticism is the understanding of the religious practice of the unity of man with God. Mystical teachings are filled with irrational and intuitive features, often with deliberate paradoxicality.

Worldview during the period of medieval philosophy

Since Christianity was the basis of the spiritual life of the Middle Ages, life itself during this period acquired characteristic features. The life of a medieval person is perceived as a path to the atonement of sins, an opportunity to restore harmony between God and man. This is due to the sin of Adam and Eve, which Jesus began to atone for. Man is Godlike, and Jesus shares redemption with man.

The very concept of “man” is divided into “soul” and “body”. The “soul” is man himself, since the soul was breathed into man by God, and the “body” is despicable and sinful. A person in this world must atone for sins, receive justification at the Last Judgment and unquestioningly obey the Church.

The picture of the world for medieval people consisted of images and interpretations of the Bible.

Attitude to a person’s appearance, compared to the period of antiquity, when they glorified beautiful bodies and muscular figures have changed. During the Middle Ages, human beauty was the triumph of the spirit over the body.

The explanation of the world rests on the division into two poles: soul and body, heaven and earth, God and nature.

Any human activity was regarded in line with religious ideas. Everything that contradicted religious dogmas was prohibited at the legal level. Any conclusions and opinions were subject to biblical censorship.

Such features of ideological views in the Middle Ages led to the fact that science did not just stand still, but moved backward. Any innovations and ideas were suppressed. Limitation and containment of the development of science soon became persistent.

Problems of medieval philosophy

The time frame of medieval philosophy defines it as a continuation of antiquity, but this new system understanding of God, the World and man. The main idea of ​​medieval philosophy was theocentrism. The main problems considered in the era of medieval philosophy are:

1. Attitude to nature. Nature is no longer considered as something independent, since God is above everything, who is subject to the creation of nature and miracles. The ancient knowledge of nature is a thing of the past, now attention is concentrated on the study and knowledge of God, the human soul. This situation of understanding nature changed somewhat in the late Middle Ages, but even then nature was perceived only as symbolic images. The world was given to man not only for good, but also for instruction.
2. Man is the image and likeness of God. The definition of the concept of “man” has been varied at all times, and the Middle Ages were no exception. The main definition was that man is the image and likeness of God. Plato and Aristotle came to the idea that man is a rational animal. In connection with this interpretation, the question arose - what is more in a person - the rational principle or the animal? Which properties in a person are essential and which are secondary? Equally, the biblical understanding of man also raised questions - if man is the likeness of God, then what properties of God can be attributed to him? After all, man is not omnipotent and not infinite.
3. The problem of soul and body. Christian doctrine says that God became incarnate in man to atone for the sins of man and save the world. Pre-Christian teachings considered the difference and incompatibility of divine and human natures.
4. The problem of self-knowledge (mind and will). God gave man free will. The will, in the era of medieval philosophy, is brought to the fore, in contrast to antiquity, when reason was the basis. Will and God help a person to do good and not evil. The status of a person during this period is not determined. He is torn out of the cosmocentrism of antiquity and placed above it, however, due to his sinful nature, he is down to earth and dependent, because he depends on the will of God.
5. History and memory. The sacredness of history. Interest in the history of mankind arises, which led to the analysis of memory - an anthropological ability that forms the basis of historical knowledge. Time is no longer viewed through the prism of the life of the cosmos and the movement of heavenly bodies. Time is the property of the human soul itself. The structure of the human soul creates the condition of possibility of time - expectation, aspiration to the future, attention, chained to the present, memory directed towards the past.
6. Universals are something general, not a specific subject. The question was whether universals exist in themselves, or whether they arise only in concrete things. This gave rise to a dispute between (the study of materiality, reality) and nominalism (the study of names).

Representatives of medieval philosophy

The philosophy of the Middle Ages found its vivid expression in the teachings of Augustine, nicknamed the Blessed. Augustine is from North Africa, his father is an atheist, and his mother is a believing Christian. Thanks to his mother, Augustine absorbed Christian knowledge from childhood. Meditation and the search for truth are the main features of the teachings of St. Augustine. The philosopher was inclined to abandon his views that he had previously held. Admitting his own mistakes and delusions is his path to perfection. The most famous works of the philosopher: “Confession”, “On the City of God”, “On the Trinity”.

Thomas Aquinas is a philosopher, theologian, Dominican monk, systematizer of scholasticism and the teachings of Aristotle. Received good education in the field of theology, which the philosopher’s family opposed. Despite this, throughout his development as a philosopher, he achieved goal after goal and got what he wanted. Thomas Aquinas is famous for the fact that in his teachings he managed to combine the dogmas of the church and the knowledge of Aristotle. He drew a clear boundary between faith and knowledge, created a hierarchy of laws, placing the Law of God at the head. Famous works: “Summa of Philosophy”, “Summa of Theology”, “On the Government of Sovereigns”.

Al-Farbi - there is information that before philosophical teachings, Al-Farbi held the position of judge. What prompted him to philosophize was the teachings of Aristotle, in which he became interested while studying the vast literary works of its time. Being from oriental culture, Al-Farbi spent a lot of time in thought, self-knowledge and contemplation. He was also known in the fields of mathematics, philology, natural sciences and astronomy. After himself, he left a huge literary heritage and students who continued his teaching.

The bright and famous philosophers of the Middle Ages, on whom the philosophy of that period was based, were:

• Albert the Great, thanks to whose work, society adopted the ideas and methods of Aristotelianism;
• Tertullian, who studied and interpreted practical topics: the attitude of Christians to paganism, Christian morality;
• Duns Scotus, who influenced church and secular life;
• Meister Eckhart, who claims that there is a “divine spark” in every person.

Medieval philosophy - the dominance of religious consciousness, the period of serving faith with philosophy. This period gave the world a spiritual world unique in content and form. Philosophy influenced the formation of universities and scientific disciplines.

Medievalism

The beginning of the Middle Ages is associated with the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476). Medieval philosophy is the philosophy of the era of feudalism of the V-XV centuries. The beginning of medieval philosophy is marked by the union of philosophy and theology and acts as a synthesis of two traditions: ancient philosophy and Christian revelation. In medieval philosophy two periods can be distinguished: formation and development. Since the philosophical teachings of this era began to take shape already in the 1st-5th centuries, and they were based on the ethical concepts of the Stoics, Epicureans and Neoplatonists, we can distinguish the following periods:

1) the period of apologetics and patristics (III-V centuries);

2) scholastic period (V-XV centuries).

A feature of medieval philosophy was its dependence on religion. “Philosophy is the handmaiden of theology”, “the threshold of the Christian faith” - this is how the place and role of philosophy in the public consciousness of that period were defined.

If Greek philosophy was associated with pagan polytheism (polytheism), the philosophical thought of the Middle Ages is rooted in the religion of monotheism (monotheism). These religions included Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Thus, the philosophy of the Middle Ages was a fusion of theology and ancient philosophical thought (mainly the legacy of Plato and Aristotle).

Medieval thinking is essentially theocentric (from lat. theos- God). According to the principle of theocentrism, the source of all being, goodness and beauty is God. Theocentrism was the basis of medieval ontology - the doctrine of being. The main principle of medieval philosophy is the principle of absolute personality, the personality of God. The principle of absolute personality is the result of a deeper understanding of the subject than in antiquity, which, in fact, was embodied in theocentrism. The highest goal in life is to serve God. According to medieval thinking, God is the first cause and fundamental principle of the world. Idealism was the dominant trend throughout the Middle Ages: “In the beginning was the word. And that word was God.” The starting point of philosophical reflection was dogma Holy Scripture. Preference was given to faith rather than knowledge; religion, not science.

The dogma of creation shifts the focus to the supernatural principle. |Unlike the ancient gods, who were related to nature, the Christian God stands above nature, on the other side of it and therefore is a transcendental God (otherworldly). The active creative principle is, as it were, withdrawn from nature and transferred to God. In this case, creation is the prerogative of God, and inventions on the part of people are considered blasphemy. This kind of idea was very widespread, which significantly hampered the development of engineering and scientific thought. According to Christian dogma, God created the world out of nothing, created it by an act of his will, thanks to his omnipotence. This worldview is called creationism (from lat. creatio), What does “creation”, “creation” mean?

Distinctive features medieval philosophy also included providentialism - the belief that everything in the world happens according to the will of divine providence, and irrationalism - the belittling of the cognitive capabilities of the human mind, recognition as fundamental; the source of knowledge is intuition, insight, revelation, etc., forms that go beyond the limits of rational knowledge. Main features of medieval philosophy.

1. Close connection with the Holy Scriptures, which was comprehensive knowledge about the world and man.

2. Philosophy, based on tradition, the texts of the Holy Scriptures, was dogmatic and conservative, skepticism was alien to it.

3. Philosophy is theocentric because the defining reality of all things was not nature, but God.

4. Philosophical formalism, understood as a penchant for frozen, “fossilized” formulas, was based on the art of interpretation, interpretation of the text.

5. Creationism - main principle ontology, and revelation is the main principle of epistemology.

Development of philosophical thought of the West and East until the 14th century. went in different ways: in the Arab East and in the part of Spain conquered by the Arabs, philosophy was less influenced by religion than in Europe and East Asia. Arabic and Arabic-language science in this first period went far ahead in comparison with European science. In China, science was also more advanced than in Europe, although the influence of religion was very strong. A number of Arab philosophers created their works in line with the scientific and philosophical traditions born of the ancient genius of Democritus - his doctrine of atoms, Pythagorean mathematics, the ideas of Plato, the philosophical and natural science heritage of Aristotle, especially his system of logic.

In European philosophy, materialism in the Middle Ages did not receive such distribution and influence on culture as in the East. The dominant form of ideology was religious ideology, which sought to make philosophy the handmaiden of theology.

The Middle Ages brought forward a galaxy of outstanding philosophers: Augustine (354-430), Boethius (480-524), Eriugena (810-877), Al-Farabi (870-950), Ibn Sina (980-1037), Averroes (Ibn Rushd, 1126-1198), Pierre Abelard (1079-1142), Roger Bacon (1214-1292), Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), Oxnam (1285-1349), etc.

It should be remembered that the worldview and life principles of early Christian communities were initially formed in opposition to the pagan world. The medieval church was also hostile to “pagan” philosophy ancient world, especially to materialist teachings. However, as Christianity gained wider influence, and therefore began to need a rational justification for its dogmas, attempts began to appear to use the teachings of ancient philosophers for this purpose. At the same time, the assimilation of the philosophical heritage of antiquity occurred in parts, biasedly, often they were given a new interpretation to reinforce religious dogmas. The main forms of development of philosophical thought during the early Middle Ages were apologetics and patristics. The fact is that the spread of Christianity in Europe, Byzantium, Western Asia and North Africa occurred in a stubborn struggle with other religious and philosophical movements.

Apologetics and patristics (III-V centuries)

Apologetics (from Greek. apologia - defense) is an early Christian philosophical movement that defended the ideas of Christianity from the pressure of the dominant pagan ideology. Apologists substantiated the possibility of the existence of philosophy on the basis of Christian doctrine. Subjected to persecution by the authorities, Christianity in the first centuries needed theoretical protection carried out by apologetics. The most famous representative of apologetics was Justin Martyr.

Following apologetics, patristics appears (from Lat. pater- father) - philosophical doctrine"Church Fathers" The writings of the “church fathers” set out the main provisions of Christian philosophy, theology, and doctrine of the church. This period is characterized by the development of integral religious-speculative systems. There are Western and Eastern patristics. The most prominent figure in the West is considered to be Augustine the Blessed; in the East - Gregory the Theologian, John Chrysostom, and Maximus the Confessor. Distinctive feature Byzantine (Eastern) philosophy is that it uses Greek and thus more organically connected with ancient culture than the Latin West.

Augustine the Blessed had a profound influence on medieval philosophy. Augustine came to Christianity through Manichaeism (a religious and philosophical doctrine that appeared in the Middle East in the 3rd century, which considered good and evil to be equal principles) and Neoplatonism, under the influence of which he was in his youth. In his teaching, Augustine combined the foundations of Neoplatonic philosophy with Christian postulates. God, according to Augustine, is the cause of everything. God created the world and continues to create it. Based on the ideas of Neoplatonism, Augustine developed in Christian theology philosophical problem theodicy (from Greek. theos - god and dike - justice) - the problem of the existence of evil in the world created by God. Good is the manifestation of God on earth, Augustine taught, evil is a lack of good. Evil on earth arises due to the distance of material existence from its ideal image. Embodying the divine image of objects, phenomena, people, matter, due to its inertia, distorts the ideal, turning it into an imperfect likeness.

In his theory of knowledge, Augustine proclaimed the formula: “I believe in order to understand.” This formula does not mean a rejection of rational knowledge in general, but asserts the unconditional primacy of faith. The main idea of ​​Augustine’s teaching is the development of man from the “old” to the “new”, overcoming selfishness in the love of God. Augustine believed that human salvation lies primarily in belonging to the Christian church, which is the representative of the “city of God on earth.” Augustine considered two opposing types of human activity - the “earthly city”, i.e. statehood, which is based on self-love, brought to the absolute, contempt for God, and the “city of God” - a spiritual community, which is based on love for God, brought to the point of self-contempt. According to Augustine, God is the highest good, and the human soul is close to God and immortal, it is more perfect than the body. The superiority of the soul over the body requires that a person take care first of all about the soul, suppressing sensual pleasures.

Augustine raised the problem of individual freedom because he believed that subjectively man acts freely, but everything he does is done by God through him. Augustine's merit is that he was the first to show that the life of the soul, the life of the “inner man,” is something incredibly complex and hardly fully definable. “The great abyss is man himself... his hair is easier to count than his feelings and the movements of his heart.” He tried to find a philosophical basis for Christianity in the philosophy of Plato, noting that Plato’s ideas are “the thoughts of the creator before the act of creation.” Augustine is the founder of the Neoplatonist movement in Christian philosophy, which dominated Western Europe until the 13th century.

Philosophical ideas set forth in the works of Augustine: “On True Religion”, “On the City of God”, “Confession”, “On the Trinity”, etc., which became theoretical basis ideology of Christianity.

Scholasticism (V-XV centuries)

The main philosophical movement of the era of the dominance of Christian ideology was scholasticism. Boethius is considered the “father of scholasticism,” who was perceived not so much as the first scholasticism, but as the “last Roman,” a follower of Cicero, Seneca, and the Platonists of the Roman era. Boethius's main work, the treatise "The Consolation of Philosophy", is the result of his philosophical and logical research.

Scholasticism (from Greek. school- school), i.e. “school philosophy” that dominated in medieval universities, which combined Christian dogma with logical reasoning. The main task of scholasticism was to substantiate, defend and systematize religious dogmas in a logical way. Dogma (from Greek. dogma - opinion) is a position that is unconditionally taken on faith and is not subject to doubt or criticism. Scholasticism created a system of logical arguments to confirm the tenets of faith. Scholastic knowledge is knowledge that is divorced from life, based not on experienced, sensory knowledge, but on reasoning based on dogma.

Scholasticism did not deny rational knowledge in general, although it reduced it to the logical inquiry of God. In this, scholasticism opposed mysticism (from Greek. mystika- sacrament) - the doctrine of the possibility of knowing God exclusively through supernatural contemplation - through revelations, insights and other irrational means. For nine centuries, scholasticism dominated the public consciousness. It played a positive role in the development of logic and other purely theoretical disciplines, but significantly slowed down the development of natural, experimental sciences.

The largest representative of scholasticism during its heyday is Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), or Thomas Aquinas, who was later canonized by the Romans. catholic church. He systematized theological teaching, creating a philosophical concept that became the basis of the official Catholic ideology. After his name, the orthodox philosophical teaching of Catholicism is called Thomism. The modern philosophical doctrine of the Vatican is called neo-Thomism. The most famous works of Thomas Aquinas are the so-called Summa of Aquinas - “Summa against the pagans” (also known as “Summa Philosophy”) and “Summa Theology”. In the teachings of Aquinas, the line between faith and knowledge, religion and science is clearly drawn. Religion gains knowledge through revelation. Science can logically prove the truth of revelations. This is the purpose of science. Scholasticism allowed the existence of only theoretical sciences. She considered experimental, sensory (natural-scientific) knowledge to be sinful.

According to Thomas Aquinas, only theology is knowledge of general causes. Knowledge about God is knowledge of two orders: 1) accessible to everyone; 2) inaccessible to the simple human mind. Therefore, the basic principle of theology is the principle of the preference of faith over reason. The main thesis: “I believe because it is absurd.” Thomas Aquinas substantiated the inconsistency of dual truth. There is only one truth - God.

Thomas Aquinas deduces five provisions of the cosmological proof of the existence of God.

He derives evidence not from the concept of God, but from the fact that every phenomenon has its own cause. Following from one cause to another, Thomas comes to the idea of ​​the necessity of the existence of God as the supreme cause of all real phenomena and processes. F. Aquinas did a lot to substantiate the theoretical Catholic doctrine, for which he was awarded the title of “angelic doctor.”

In the 11th century a struggle unfolds in scholastic philosophy itself between nominalism and realism as a scientific discussion. The largest of them, which lasted for several centuries, was the so-called “dispute about universals.” Universals (from lat. universale- general) name general concepts (terms, names, names) in contrast to individual, specific objects. The discussion about universals was based on the following question: “Do general concepts exist objectively, or do only individual objects exist objectively (really)?”

Realism (from lat. realis- valid) recognized that general concepts exist objectively, really, independently of the mind cognizing them. Realists spoke about the real existence of general concepts - “universals” (“man in general”, “tree in general”, etc.) - as some kind of spiritual essences or prototypes of individual things. Universals, they argued, actually exist before things and give rise to things. This extreme realism had its source in Plato’s teaching about the “world of ideas” and the “world of things.”

Nominalism (from lat. potpep - name) recognized that only individual objects really, objectively exist, and general concepts - names are created by the subject who knows them, by abstracting signs, that universals exist not before, but after things. Only individual things are real, for example people, trees, but “man in general” or “tree in general” are just words or names with the help of which people generalize individual objects into a genus.

A type of nominalism was conceptualism, or moderate nominalism, which is sometimes defined as an intermediate direction between nominalism and realism. Conceptualism recognizes the reality of the existence of general concepts, but only in the mind of the cognizing subject.

Self-test questions

(first level of understanding of the material)

1. What are characteristic features medieval philosophy?

2. What philosophical movements arose during the Middle Ages?

3. What is the essence of the scholastic dispute about universals between realists and nominalists?

Philosophy of the Renaissance (XV-XVI centuries)

The Renaissance, or Renaissance (from French. renaissance - revival), received its name due to the revival that began during this period essential principles spiritual culture of antiquity.

The Renaissance as a whole was oriented towards art, and the cult of the artist-creator occupied a central place in it. The artist imitates not just God's creations, but divine creativity itself. A person begins to look for a fulcrum in himself - in his soul, body, physicality (cult of beauty - Botticelli, Leonardo, Raphael). Diversity of development and talent was especially revered in this era.

Medieval philosophy deeply and consistently thought through the principle of the Absolute, when everywhere and in everything they saw the primacy not of nature, not of man, but of God. This kind philosophical worldview most organically corresponds to the entire social, economic and political structure of the Middle Ages, based on agriculture. With the transition to an urban lifestyle and the development of industry, the special significance of man and his creative activity is revealed. The focus of Renaissance philosophy is on man.

New economic relations contributed to the emergence of spiritual opposition to feudalism as a way of life and the dominant way of thinking. Technical inventions and scientific discoveries enriched labor with new, more effective methods of action (the spinning wheel appeared, the loom was improved, blast furnace metallurgy was invented, etc.). The use of gunpowder and the creation of firearms revolutionized military affairs, which negated the importance of knighthood as a branch of the military and as a feudal class. The birth of printing contributed enormously to the development of humanitarian culture in Europe. The use of a compass significantly increased the possibilities of navigation, the network of water trade communications rapidly expanded, and it was especially intensive in the Mediterranean - it is not surprising that it was in Italian cities that the first manufactories arose as a step in the transition from crafts to the capitalist mode of production. Thus, the main prerequisites for the emergence of philosophy and culture of the Renaissance were the crisis of feudalism, the improvement of tools and industrial relations, the development of crafts and trade, increasing the level of education, the crisis of the church and scholastic philosophy, geographical, scientific and technical discoveries. A feature of early bourgeois culture was an appeal to the ancient heritage (not a return to the past, but a conversion). As for philosophy, its separation from theology has now begun. Religion is separated from science, politics and morality. The era of the formation of experimental sciences begins, their role is recognized as the only one that provides true knowledge about nature. During the Renaissance, a new philosophical worldview was developed thanks to the work of a whole galaxy of outstanding philosophers: Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464), Giordano Bruno (1548-1600), Galileo Galilei(1564-1642), Lorenzo Balla (1407-1457), Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494), Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639), Thomas More (1478-1535), Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527), Erasmus of Rotterdam ( 1469-1536) etc.

The main ideologist of this current of philosophy was Nikolai Kuzansky, the first outstanding representative of pantheistic philosophy of the Renaissance. Cusansky brings God closer to nature, the creator to creation, attributing to nature divine attributes, and above all infinity in space. For him, the Earth is not the center of the world. He expresses ideas in relation to the understanding of nature, the unity of opposites, one and many, possibility and reality, infinity and finitude in nature. N. Kuzansky expressed and substantiated the concept of the scientific method, the problem of creativity. He argued that human capabilities in the field of knowledge are limitless. His views influenced subsequent ideas in Renaissance philosophy.

The greatest genius of this period was Giordano Bruno. He, having rejected all church dogmas, developed the heliocentric ideas of Copernicus and discovered the existence of many worlds. Bruno wrote a lot about God, but his God was the Universe. He denied God dictating the laws of the world. For Bruno, man is part of nature. The love of knowledge and the power of reason elevate him above the world,

Huge value The works of Galileo Galilei contributed to the development of Renaissance philosophy. His discoveries in astronomy grew into a fierce polemic with the church, which defended the Aristotelian-Ptolemaic picture of the world. Galileo called for studying nature only experimentally on the basis of mathematics and mechanics. He believed that only scientific methods, including experimentation, can lead to truth. Scientific methodology Galileo, relying on mathematics and mechanics, defined his worldview as mechanistic materialism. According to Galileo, God is the prime mover who imparted motion to the planets. Then “mechanism” in nature began to work independently and began to have its own laws that science should study. Galileo was one of the first to formulate a deistic view of nature.

The natural philosophical ideas of Renaissance thinkers had a decisive influence on the development of philosophy and natural science in modern times.

The main feature of the ideology of the Renaissance is humanism (from Lat. homo - man) is an ideological movement that affirms the value of man and human life. The poet Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374) is considered the founder of the ideology of humanism. In Renaissance philosophy, humanism manifested itself, in particular, in anthropocentrism (from the Greek. anthropos - man) - a worldview that placed man at the focus of world existence.

Rationalism, which asserts the primacy of reason over faith, becomes a unique manifestation of humanism. A person can independently explore the mysteries of existence by studying the foundations of the existence of nature. During the Renaissance, scholastic, speculative principles of knowledge were rejected, and experimental, natural scientific knowledge was resumed. Fundamentally new, anti-scholastic pictures of the world were created: the heliocentric picture of Nicolaus Copernicus and the picture of the infinite Universe of Giordano Bruno.

In views on nature in Renaissance philosophy, pantheism dominated (from Greek pan - everything and theos - God) is a doctrine that identifies nature and God. In the ethics of the Renaissance, some principles of pre-Christian teachings about morality (Epicureanism, Stoicism, skepticism) were restored. New concepts have appeared in social philosophy, directed towards individualism and secularization (secularization, weakening of church influence in all spheres). The most important achievement of the Renaissance was that the dictatorship of the church was broken.

The basis of human relations, humanists believed, is mutual respect and love. Renaissance philosophy is dominated by the aesthetic (meaning pertaining to feeling in Greek), with thinkers more interested in creativity and beauty human personality, not religious dogma. The foundations of the anthropocentrism of the Renaissance lie in the change in economic relations. Division agriculture and crafts, the rapid development of manufacturing production marked the transition from feudalism to early capitalism.

Directions in Renaissance philosophy:

1) humanistic (XIV-XV centuries) - human problems were solved, his greatness and power were affirmed, the dogmas of the church were denied (F. Petrarch, L. Balla);

2) Neoplatonic (XV-XVI centuries) - from the standpoint of idealism they tried to understand natural phenomena, the Cosmos, human problems, developed the teachings of Plato (N. Kuzansky, P. Mirandola, Paracelsus);

3) natural philosophy (XVI - early XVII centuries) - relying on scientific and astronomical discoveries, they made an attempt to change the idea of ​​​​the structure of the Universe, the Cosmos and the basis of the universe (N. Copernicus, G. Bruno, G. Galileo);

4) reformation (XVI-XVII centuries) - an attempt to revise church ideology and the relationship between people and the church (E. Rotterdamsky, J. Calvin, M. Luther, T. Münzer, Usenlief);

5) political (XV-XVI centuries) - associated with problems of government (N. Machiavelli);

6) utopian-socialist (XV-XVII centuries) - the search for an ideal society based on the regulation of all relationships by the state in the absence of private property (T. More, T. Campanella).

Let's summarize some results. We have already said earlier that the philosophers of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance became the successors of the philosophers of antiquity. Comparing the paradigmatic features of the philosophy of these eras, we can highlight their differences.

1. Theological philosophy of the V-XV centuries. n. e.

2. Philosophy of Augustine the Blessed.

3. Arabic philosophy of the Middle Ages.

4. Nominalism and realism.

5. Philosophy of Thomas Aquinas.

1. Medieval theological (religious) philosophy is a system of teachings widespread in Europe in the 5th - 15th centuries, which recognized God as the highest principle, and the entire world around us as the creation of God. Religious philosophy began to emerge in the Roman Empire in the I-V centuries. AD based on the ideas of early Christianity, and reached its highest peak in the 5th -8th centuries. Significant contributions to medieval philosophy were made by: Tertullian of Carthage (160-220), Augustine the Blessed (354-430), Boethius (480-524), Albertus Magnus (1193-1280), Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), Anselm of Canterbury (1033 -1109), Pierre Abelard (1079-1142), William of Ockham (1285-1349), etc.

Medieval philosophy is theocentric, i.e. the main cause of all things, the highest substance and the main subject of philosophical research was God. Philosophy was dominated by dogmas (truths that do not need proof) about God’s creation of everything and God’s revelation about Himself (in the Bible). Ideas were put forward about the resurrection of man from the dead (both soul and body) in the future with godly behavior, and about the salvation of humanity through the incarnation of God into the human body - Jesus Christ and his taking upon himself the sins of all mankind. The world was considered knowable through the knowledge of God, which is possible only through faith in God.

Medieval religious philosophy was distinguished by self-absorption, traditionalism, a focus on the past, isolation from the real world, belligerence, dogmatism, and edification. This was facilitated by a number of reasons: destruction and loss ancient culture and the undivided dominance of religion in the spiritual life of society. Under these conditions, philosophy became the handmaiden of theology; the problems it solved were recognized as serving to substantiate the existence of God and apologetics of the divine truths of the Holy Scriptures.

During the era of the formation and development of feudalism in Europe, Christianity became the main ideology. This period in the history of mankind occupies almost a whole millennium, when philosophers conducted deep research and noted new methods in understanding the world, God, and themselves.

2. The philosophy of Aurelius Augustine (the Blessed) is reflected in his numerous works: “On the Blessed Life”, “On True Religion”, “Confession”, “On the City of God”, “Monologues”, “On the Quantity of the Soul”, “On the Teacher” , “On the Immortality of the Soul”, etc. An outstanding philosopher, politician, preacher of the Catholic Church, he presented the history of the development of human society as a struggle between two hostile kingdoms: earthly (secular) and heavenly (divine). In his works the Catholic Church is identified with the kingdom of God. The Church is the only force capable of helping people overcome sin and unite the world. Kings and emperors, according to Augustine, must express the will of the Christian Church and obey it.

His philosophy promoted resignation to poverty, injustice and inequality, faith in a future afterlife as a reward from God for righteous life on the ground. He argued that a person, having learned the truth, will become happy, glorified the godlikeness of man, his strength and perfection. He argued that a person cannot achieve true knowledge only by knowing God. Initially, God laid the embryonic forms of all things in the material world, and subsequently they develop on their own. The Divine is present in everything, the creations of God are matter, space, time, man and his soul, almost the entire world around us.

The truth about God cannot be known by reason, but only by faith, i.e. separated knowledge from faith. Emphasizing the role of feelings, Augustine asserted the unity of faith and knowledge, without elevating reason.

3. The philosophy created by the Arabs and other peoples of the Near and Middle East in the Middle Ages went through two main stages in its development: the first (VII-IX centuries) – the period of the formation of Arab philosophy; the second (IX - XV centuries) - the period of its transformation into Arab-Greek. Especially in the X – XI centuries. In Arab countries there is a significant rise in spiritual life, especially in art, science, and philosophy. The strong influence of Aristotle's ideas on Arabic philosophy leads to the fact that prominent philosophers - encyclopedists develop the cult of reason and knowledge, reflect on the problems of God, soul, immortality, and human capabilities to understand the real world. Among them are outstanding thinkers: Al-Kindi (800-879), Al-Farabi (870-950), Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980-1037), Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (1126-1198) and others.

Al-Kindi was the first of the Eastern scientists to discover ancient Greek philosophy for the Arab peoples. Taking Aristotle's philosophy as a basis, he further developed and expanded the ideas of materialism and defined five categories of existence: matter, form, movement, space and time. In epistemology, this philosopher boldly argued that only the human mind is capable of discovering the truth. To do this, he must go through three stages of scientific knowledge: logical - mathematical, natural - scientific, philosophical. But his teaching was not understood by his contemporaries, he himself was persecuted, and his works were destroyed. But it was Al-Kindi who created the foundations for the further progressive development of Arabic philosophy.

Al-Farabi is a prominent scientist and encyclopedist. He has written more than a hundred scientific works on philosophy, history, and natural sciences. He paid a lot of attention to logic, which allows one to distinguish true knowledge from false knowledge. Philosophy helps to understand the essence of existence. He considered the theory of knowledge to be the theory of finding truth in the unity of feelings and reason. The essence of things is known only by the mind, and the mind relies on logic. Although Al-Farabi recognized the existence of God as the primary cause of existence, his teaching is a great work to clarify the most complex problems of existence and knowledge.

The most outstanding philosopher Central Asia There was a resident of Bukhara, Ibn Sina (Avicenna). He created more than three hundred scientific works. The main ones in philosophy: “The Book of Healing” and “The Book of Knowledge.” A man of an encyclopedic mind, he proposed a classification of sciences by dividing them according to objects of study; based his philosophical conclusions on the achievements of the natural sciences; believed that God exists, but in the world around us many phenomena occur against the will of God; tried to separate philosophy from religion; was convinced that philosophy is a separate science designed to generalize the progressive ideas of humanity.

In epistemology, Avicenna paid a lot of attention to the analysis of such problems as indirect and direct knowledge, the truth of knowledge, the role of intuition in knowledge, the role of logic in scientific creativity. Avicenna's philosophy contributed to the development and prosperity of not only Eastern, but also Western science and culture.

The Arab philosopher Ibn Rushd (Averroes), famous in Europe during his lifetime, rejected the idea of ​​creation and believed that the world is eternal, uncreated and indestructible by anyone. Although he did not deny the existence of God, he argued that the movement of matter does not depend on God, this movement is an independent property of matter contained in it. He believed that what is true in philosophy may be false in religion, therefore philosophical truths should be considered separately from religious truths.

The materialistic, anti-religious philosophy of Averroes found a wide response in Europe, was taught at universities, and opposed scholasticism.

Medieval philosophy made a significant contribution to the further development of the theory of knowledge, developing and supplementing various logical options for the relationship between rational and empirical, mediated and direct, individual, general and special, which later became the foundation for the formation of the foundations of natural science and philosophical knowledge.

The main stages of medieval philosophy were patristics and scholasticism.

Patristics (from the Latin Pater - father) is a theological and philosophical direction, the largest philosophers of which were the Church Fathers. The period of development of patristics is I – IV centuries. Basic dogmas Christian religion developed by: Basil the Great, Augustine the Blessed, Tertullian and others. The main problems of patristics: the essence of God; the relationship of faith and reason, the revelations of Christians and the wisdom of pagans, understanding history as movement towards a specific goal; consideration of human freedom through the possibility of salvation or destruction of his soul; problems of good and evil in this world, why God allows the presence of evil on earth. These philosophers also solved the problems of the existence of God, the substantiation of His triune essence, the relationship of faith and reason, the Divine predestination of human life, the possibility of the afterlife salvation of the soul, etc.

Scholasticism is the main type of medieval religious philosophy, the features of which were isolation from reality, isolation, conservatism, dogmatism, complete subordination to religious ideas, schematicism, and edification. Scholasticism (from the Latin Schola - school) was taught in all schools and universities in Europe and was a frozen university discipline. The scholastics divided knowledge into two types: supernatural (the revelations of God given in the Bible) and natural, found by the human mind (as he understood the ideas of God from the text of the Bible). Philosophers of the Middle Ages conducted numerous debates and wrote thousands of volumes in which they commented on the ideas of God. They paid special attention to the correctness and clarity of concepts and definitions. Prominent thinkers of this type of philosophy of the Middle Ages were Bonaventure (1221–274), Albertus Magnus (1193–1280), Pierre Abelard (1079–1142), and Anselm of Canterbury (1033–1109). Philosophers have put forward a number of ideas:

The doctrine of the truth of faith and the truth of knowledge;

The doctrine of free will and its causes;

The doctrine of the correspondence of things and concepts about them, etc.

4. In the 11th century, a discussion arose in religious philosophy between various scientists about the dogma of the Christian religion about the trinitarian essence of God. According to the Bible, God is one, but threefold in persons: God the Father, God the Son, God the Holy Spirit. Soon the discussion went beyond this issue and touched upon the dialectic of the one and the general.

Proponents of realism (from the Latin realis - material) considered the general as something ideal, preceding the thing, i.e. developed an idealistic concept of the connection between the general and the individual. According to them, it is not the things themselves that truly exist, but their general concepts - universals. One of the representatives of realism, Anselm of Canterbury (1033 – 1109) argued: “If there is a thought about God, then God exists in reality.” Thought and being are identical. It turns out, in his opinion, general concepts - universals - really exist. Hence the term "realism". The general exists as really as the world around us, and God is the really existing “common.”

They were objected to by supporters of nominalism (from the Latin nomen - names), who considered only the concrete things themselves to really exist, and perceived general concepts (universals) as names of things. The representative of nominalism, the philosopher Roscelin, believed that only single, separate things exist in the world, and the “general” does not really exist as a thing. “Universals” are general concepts, these are the sounds of the voice - the nominal value. This is where the term “nominalism” originated.

Pierre Abelard (1079 – 1142) tried to combine these two directions in his conceptualism. He argued that the general does not really exist outside of things. The general exists in the things themselves and is highlighted by our consciousness when we begin to cognize and study these things. Therefore, the “general” exists only in the human mind (the mind is a concept). Therefore, the general in the mind is (conceptually) real.

5. A prominent philosopher, theologian, author of Thomism (one of the dominant movements of the Catholic Church), Thomas Aquinas, managed to systematize scholasticism. In 1878, his teachings were declared the official ideology of Catholicism. In a number of his works: “Summa Theology”, “Summa Philosophy”, “Summa against the Pagans”, he considers being as possible and as actual.

Being is the existence of the individual, i.e. substance. Also, along with the categories “possibility” and “reality”, he introduces the categories “matter” and “form”. Matter is possibility, and form is reality. Materiality does not exist without form, and form depends on God (the highest form). But God is a spiritual being, and for the corporeal world the unity of form and matter is necessary. But matter itself is passive; activity is given to it by form.

Interesting are Thomas Aquinas’s proofs of the existence of God, which the modern Catholic Church still uses today:

1. Everything that moves is moved by someone. This means that the prime mover is God.

2. Everything that exists has causes. Therefore, the first cause of everything is God.

3. The random depends on the necessary. Therefore, the original necessity is God.

4. Everything that exists has different degrees of quality, therefore, there must be the highest quality - God.

5. Everything in the world has a purpose or meaning. This means that there is a rational principle that directs everything towards the goal - God.

Thus, he was able to prove through accessible reasons for the existence of God; schematize scholasticism; show convincingly that only that knowledge is true that is obtained by reason in accordance with faith; separate philosophy from theology, although philosophy occupies a subordinate position in relation to theology.

The significance of medieval philosophy is that it became a transition period from antiquity to the Renaissance; clearly identified ontology and epistemology, objective and subjective idealism began to be studied more deeply. The idea of ​​optimism arose, which formulated the possibility of the resurrection of man, the victory of good over evil.