Appendix 8. Note from the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Provisional Russian Government P. N. Milyukov dated April 18 (May 1), 1917 on the tasks of the war, presented through Russian representatives to the allied powers. On March 27 of this year, the provisional government published an appeal to

Appendix 2. List of KGB and GRU officers expelled from France after 1960 Agafonov Sergei (1976) Androsov Andrei (1983) Arkhipov Vladimir (1969) Belik Gennady (1983) Belyatsev Anatoly (1979) Bekhtin Nikolay (1982) Bludov Mikhail (1984) ) Bovin Oleg (1983) Bochkov Victor (1983) Bykov Yuri (1983) Vanagel Victor

France is considered one of the few countries in the world where the highest civilian position was first introduced - the post of president of the country. At the same time, the status of French presidents has always been distinguished by the fullness of executive power and the breadth of state powers, which were enshrined in the Constitution of the French Republic.

Background to the beginning of presidential rule

Strong presidential power in France has developed historically, inheriting most of the levers government controlled and powers from the French monarchs. France has almost always had political weight on the world stage, being one of the leading world powers. This was greatly facilitated by the strong state machine, a well-functioning system of redistribution of power in the country. Paris successfully coped not only with governance in the metropolis itself. The power of the French monarchs, emperors and presidents of the French Republic extended to vast overseas territories and colonies in Africa, in North America and in Southeast Asia.

However, despite the effectiveness of the state machine, at a certain stage social and political conditions developed in the country, which subsequently radically changed the entire system of public administration. First on shift absolute monarchy came a constitutional monarchy, which ended in 1792 with the French Revolution. From this moment on, the era of republican rule begins in the country. Despite the fact that the First Republic did not last long - only 7 years - it was during that period that the foundation was laid new system state structure. State power in the country underwent significant changes, which the French emperors and kings who were in certain moment French history at the pinnacle of government power.

The period of Napoleon's Empire (1804-1815) became the zenith of glory for France. At that time government in the country was concentrated in one hand. Despite the fact that Napoleon was defeated and France was again short period became a kingdom, it was the first Emperor of France, Napoleon Bonaparte, who is credited main role in building a slim state system management. Ultimately, the powers and status of the emperor were the prelude to the establishment of the highest public office in the country - the post of President of France.

The birth of the presidential form of government in France

The period of presidential rule in France is closely related to historical events, which shook the country throughout the 19th century. The First Republic was characterized by leapfrog in the highest echelons of power. The National Convention and the Committee of Public Safety were replaced by the Directory, which gave birth to Napoleon, the future French emperor. After the military coup of the 18th Brumaire (November 9, 1799 to Gregorian calendar) the country formally retained a republican form of government, but all supreme power in France was now in the hands of three consuls - Sieyès, Roger Ducos - and General Napoleon Bonaparte, who were the provisional government.

With the liquidation of the Directory, the Great French Revolution ended. The First Republic would still exist for the next five years. Its end would come in 1804 with the proclamation of Napoleon Bonaparte as Emperor of all the French. The Great French Revolution and the existence of Napoleon's empire are rightfully considered the most dramatic periods in the history of the French state.

Subsequent events became no less tragic and dramatic, but they changed government system France. First the next one French revolution 1848 put an end to the July Monarchy, giving rise to a new, Second Republic in the history of France. In the wake of the revolutionary upsurge, and taking advantage of the difficult military-political situation that reigned in the highest establishment of French politics, Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of Emperor Napoleon I, became the first president of the Second Republic.

As a result, in the first direct elections of the head of state in the history of France, Louis Napoleon managed to win a landslide victory, receiving 75% of the votes of voters who took part in the voting. Subsequently, the system of direct elections in France was abolished, reviving only in 1965 during the Fifth Republic.

The inauguration of the first President of France took place on December 20, 1848, during which Louis Napoleon Bonaparte took the oath of office on the text of the Constitution. The very first president of the French state was only 40 years old at the time of his election, which was for a long time an absolute record.

Currently occupying the presidential office at the Elysee Palace, Emmanuel Macron is the youngest president in French history.

The presidency of Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte was a controversial period in French history. Under the first president, France became an economically powerful power, competing with the British Empire for the right to leadership on the European continent and in the world. With the help of French troops, the process of unifying Italy is underway. However, despite achievements achieved in the external arena, the internal political climate in France under the first president was not stable.

Plots and coup attempts followed one after another. In the wake of the fight against internal counter-revolution, Louis Napoleon himself initiated the coup of 1851. As a result, all democratic institutions were abolished in the country, and a police regime was established, headed by the first president and his political puppets. In 1852, the establishment of the Second Empire in the country was announced - the Second Republic sank into oblivion.

The reign of Emperor Napoleon III ended with the brutal defeat of the French in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. The defeat of the French army at Verdun and the capture of Emperor Napoleon III by the Germans on September 2, 1870 put an end to the history of the Second Empire. The next revolution that followed these events gave birth to yet another Third Republic. From this moment on, all subsequent presidents of the country will be directly connected with the fate of the three republics. The periodization of presidential rule is calculated accordingly. Only now can we clearly trace the years of reign of each president, his affiliation with a certain political force, and connect the role of each person with the events of French history.

All French Presidents of the Third Republic

When starting an analysis of the activities of all subsequent presidents of the French state, it should be noted that the scope of their functions and powers was now strictly regulated in the country's Constitution. Each of the subsequent editions of the Basic Law determined the relationship of the presidential branch of government with the government. The method of electing the country's president, practiced in France during the subsequent period of history, also deserves special attention.

Since the fall of the Second Republic, the person who received the most votes in the National Assembly has been elected to the highest government office in France. In this way, on August 31, 1871, the second president of the country, Adolphe Thiers, was elected. Despite the fact that the reign of the second president was determined to be three years, after a year and a half, in May 1873, Thiers resigned. Elections for a new head of state were scheduled in the country.

The third president of the Third Republic was General Patrice de MacMahon, who bore the title of count. The reign of Patrice de MacMahon was 1873 - 1879. It was under him that new Constitutional laws were adopted in France in 1875, which determined the status of the President of France, established the method of electing the head of state and determined the duration of the presidential term at 7 years. For the first time, the right of the head of state to be re-elected for a second term was fixed at the legislative level. The third president of France was remembered in history for his ardent monarchism. During his time in power, MacMahon tried to roll back all revolutionary gains, organizing a period of political reaction. Only thanks to the strong position of democratic forces in the National Assembly of France, the country managed to maintain a republican form of government and a democratic system. Under pressure from political opponents, McMahon left his post early in January 1879.

In the period from 1879 to 1940, 19 people served as President of France, among whom five were temporarily in the top post. The list of presidents for this era of the Third Republic is as follows:

• President François-Paul-Jules Grévy, who held office twice - in 1879-1986. and in 1886-87;
• Marie-François-Sadi Carnot, who occupied high post President of the country in 1837-1894;
• Jean-Paul-Pierre-Casimir Casimir-Perrier, June 1894 - January 1895;
• Felix-François Faure, reigned from 1895 to 1899;
• Emile-François Loubet, reigned 1899-1906;
• Clément-Armand Fallier, who served as president of the country for 7 years - from 1906 to 1913;
• Raymond-Nicolas-Landry Poincaré, reigned 1913-1920;
• Paul-Eugene-Louis Deschanel, who served as President of France for 8 months in 1920;
• Etienne-Alexandre Millerand, who received the post of head of state in 1920 and held it during 1920-1924;
• Pierre-Paul-Henri-Gaston Doumergue, reigned 1924-1931;
• Joseph-Athanaz-Paul Doumer, who served as head of state for 11 months, from June 1931 to May 1932;
• Albert-François Lebrun served as the country's president from 1932 to 1940.

Judging by the list, not all French presidents held high office during the seven years allotted by the Constitution. In French politics, the voluntary resignation of the highest-ranking politicians is considered quite common, and presidents are no exception in this case. This explains the number of acting presidents, of whom there were five. As a rule, such a person was appointed for a transition period until the next presidential election. There were interim presidents in January 1879, December 1887, 1893, 1895 and 1899. In the 20th century, acting There were only two presidents of France: François-Marsal, Frédéric, who served as acting president in 1924, and André-Pierre-Gabriel-Amédée Tardieu, who held high office in 1932.

At the end of the 19th century, parties and unions entered French politics. Previously, French presidents were politically independent persons. Starting with the presidency of Emile-François Loubet, who represented the Republican Democratic Alliance, all subsequent presidents were representatives of one or another political force. Only two of this long list have held the presidency twice: François-Paul-Jules Grévy and Albert-François Lebrun.

Of the listed persons, the Third Republic can rightfully be proud of many. Thus, under President Raymond-Nicolas-Landry Poincaré, France entered the First World War and emerged from this colossal massacre among the victorious countries. During the first third of the 20th century, French presidents took a fairly active part in many aspects of world politics, highly raising the political prestige of France. Started September 1, 1939 Second World War soon put an end to the Third Republic. After the defeat of France Nazi troops and with the surrender signed on July 11, 1940, President Albert-François Lebrun was removed from power. The Third Republic de facto ceased to exist, giving way to political regime Vichy, which was led by Marshal Henri-Philippe Pétain.

Presidential power under the Fourth and Fifth Republics

After the end of World War II, the newly assembled constituent Assembly accepted new project Constitution, which was submitted to a national referendum on October 13, 1946. Formally, this meant the establishment of a parliamentary-presidential republic in France, in which the powers of the country's president were of a declarative, representative nature. The country's first post-war president in 1947 was Jules-Vincent Auriol, representing the French Socialist Party.

Seven years later, in 1954, Jules-Gustave-René Coty, a representative of the petty bourgeoisie and independent peasant democrats, was elected to the presidency. Under him, the hero and veteran of World War II, leader of the Fighting France movement, General Charles de Gaulle, took leading roles in French politics. In 1958, the government he headed put up for another referendum a draft of a new Constitution, in which the presidential branch of government became the main one in France. With the adoption of the new constitution, the Fourth Republic ended and the era of the Fifth Republic began.

In accordance with the new Basic Law, the French parliament was significantly limited in its powers, therefore the status of the president increased. The head of state becomes the sovereign head of the executive branch of the country. Presidential orders have the force of legislative acts. The responsibilities of the country's president include forming a cabinet of ministers, which is then reviewed and approved by the French parliament.

The President presides over meetings of the Cabinet of Ministers, adopts decrees, signs government ordinances and decrees, and makes appointments to government positions. As Supreme Commander, the President of France bears full responsibility for the sovereignty of the French state and the combat capability of the armed forces of the French Republic. Under de Gaulle, the principle of electing the president changes. He is no longer elected within the walls of parliament. This function was performed by an electoral college representing all departments of the country.

The 18th president of the country, General Charles-André-Joseph-Marie de Gaulle, the most prominent person of this period, held high office from 1959 to 1969. It was he who, the first of all post-war presidents, managed to truly make the presidential branch of power in the country truly strong and durable. France emerged from the circle of unspoken international isolation in which the country found itself after the Second World War. President de Gaulle's achievements include the beginning of decolonization. France is finally moving from the imperial system of government to the Francophone community of nations. Algeria, Vietnam and Cambodia gain independence. In June 1962, the country adopted new electoral legislation, according to which the head of state is elected by direct popular vote.

Under de Gaulle, France's foreign policy changed. With the beginning of US aggressive actions in Indochina, France leaves NATO. During the presidential reign of Charles de Gaulle, there was a period of normalization of political relations with the Federal Republic of Germany and with Soviet Union. However, reforms in the domestic political arena end in complete failure; many goals in the socio-economic sector are not achieved. Civil disobedience in Paris, which broke out in May 1968, led to de Gaulle's voluntary resignation as president of the country.

As a result of direct popular vote in 1969, Georges-Jean-Raymond Pompidou was elected president of France, reigning 1969 - 1974. The period of the Fifth Republic saw the reign of 8 presidents. Following Georges Pompidou, the following were elected to the highest government post:

• Valérie-René-Marie-Georges Giscard d'Estaing, representative of the Federation of Independent Republicans, reigned 1974-82;
• François-Maurice-Adrien-Marie Mitterrand, representing the French Socialists. François Mitterrand served two terms as president from 1981 to 1995;
• Jacques-René Chirac, reigned 1995-2007;
• Nicolas-Paul-Stéphane Sarkozy de Nagy-Bocsa, who occupied the Elysee Palace from 2007-2012;
• François-Gerard-Georges-Nicolas Hollande became the 24th president of France, holding the high office from 2012-17.

In 2018, the country held new elections, which Emmanuel-Jean-Michel-Frederic Macron won, becoming the 25th president of the French Republic and at the same time the youngest politician to hold this high post. It should be noted that starting in 2002, the presidential term was reduced to 5 years, leaving the Head of State with the right to be re-elected for a second term.

Residence of the President of France

Since 1848, after the election of Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte to the highest government post, the Elysee Palace has become the official residence of the President of the Republic. The palace is a complex of buildings located in the 7th arrondissement of the French capital. The main building was built in 1722 and was considered one of the most fashionable buildings in Paris XVIII.

During the reign of Napoleon I, the building first housed government structures, and after the establishment of the Empire, the Elysee Palace became the official residence of the French emperor.

On the territory of the palace complex there are not only residential apartments of the head of state. In the Elysee Palace there is a presidential reception room, where the head of the Fifth Republic receives high-ranking foreign guests and foreign delegations. The palace is the official meeting place of the Cabinet of Ministers.

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After the Revolution of 1848, which swept through France, attempts were made in the republics to once again change the political and social system. It all ended with the adoption of a new Constitution (November 1848), the proclamation of the Second French Republic and the election of its first (and last) president. He became the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte - Charles Louis-Napoleon (Napoleon III).

The post of President was created by the Constitution of 1848, which was caused by the need to stop the intensification of the workers' movement and the deepening of the revolutionary movement. The main document contained other provisions concerning the new institution of power:

• Granting the president broad powers;
• The people of the republic had to choose the head of state;
• The presidential term was four years.

First presidential elections in the history of France were held in December 1848. The main contenders were Louis Napoleon Bonaparte and General Louis Eugene Cavaignac. The victory went to the first candidate, for whom 80% of voters voted. All their votes were given to Bonaparte by peasants and small landowners, who hoped that the president would pursue a policy of protecting their interests. This is what Napoleon Bonaparte did in his time. Both factory workers and representatives of the bourgeoisie supported his nephew. As a result, the hopes of the Republican party, which sided with the general, failed.

Crown Prince

The future president was born on April 20, 1808 in the family of Louis Bonaparte, the brother of Napoleon the First, who married his younger relative to Hortense Beauharnais. She was the daughter of the Emperor's wife Josephine (from her marriage to General Alexandre Beauharnais). This marriage was unsuccessful because the young people had nothing in common. But such a dynastic union was beneficial to the Emperor of France. He also placed his brother on the Dutch throne, where Louis Bonaparte stayed from 1806 to 1810.

At first he lived with his father, mother and two older brothers in Holland. After the collapse of Napoleon I and the fall of the empire, he was forced to move with his mother to Switzerland. He received his education at home under the mentorship of F. Loeb. Later, the boy was sent to a military school, which was located in Thun, Switzerland.

Revolutionary youth

In the early 1830s. became an active participant in the Italian revolutionary movement, which fought to overthrow the Austrian Habsburg dynasty. The Italian authorities opened a real hunt against the revolutionaries, so Louis Bonaparte fled to France. Here he was received by King Louis Philippe the First. But revolutionary ideas and views did not leave the prince alone, so in 1836 he moved to Strasbourg. The attempted uprising here ended unsuccessfully; this time the rebel was arrested and deported to the United States.

Four years later he returns to France to organize a riot in the military garrison in Boulogne. He was arrested again and, by decision of the House of Peers, was sent to prison to serve a life sentence. After being imprisoned for six years, he decided to escape. The escape plan was successful, and in 1846 the prince secretly left his prison, going to the British Isles.

Election as President of France

Revolutionary events in his homeland paved the way for Louis Napoleon's return to France, where he sailed in 1848. In September of the same year, he was elected to the Constituent Assembly of the Republic as a deputy. And three months later, on December 20, 1848, he became the first president in the history of the country.

Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (Napoleon III)

While still in prison, Louis Bonaparte wrote several socio-political works. In his works, he defended the need to introduce a monarchy with democratic forms of government. Until the end of his days, his views on power did not change; the President of the Republic always remained a convinced Bonapartist.

Having become the head of the French Republic, he took the following steps to strengthen his own power:

• All representatives Republican Party removed management from the state apparatus;
• Following the election of 1849, the Constituent Assembly included supporters of the monarchy, who created the Party of Order;
• Was accepted new law about elections;
• A property qualification for voters was reintroduced, resulting in about three million French people losing their voting rights.

Such actions created excellent conditions for the abolition of the republican system. This happened in early December 1851, after which the Bonapartist dictatorship was introduced in France. Louis Bonaparte took the title of emperor and began to rule under the name of Napoleon III.

Thus, the institution of the presidency in France arose in 1848 and lasted only three years. Napoleon III ruled as Emperor of France until 1870. Last years He spent his life at Chislehurst Castle, not far from the English capital. In January 1873 former president The French Republic underwent surgery to break up kidney stones. But the surgical intervention was unsuccessful, and on January 9, Louis Napoleon died. He was buried at St Michael's Abbey in Farnborough, UK.