INTERNATIONAL TRADE. STORY
Traditional societies. Until the end of the 19th century. in fact, everywhere the majority of the population were peasants who produced food, and also made tools and many essential items. What they could not produce themselves was bought from nearby towns in exchange for agricultural surpluses (usually small ones) and some handicrafts. Long-distance travel on trade was very rare, since almost all products were produced in small quantities, and transporting goods was fraught with danger, great expense and took a long time. Where international trade existed, it was usually monopolized by government-licensed private organizations such as the British East India Company. It made sense to export abroad only goods that had a high value and low weight: gems, precious metals, spices, some types of fabrics (especially wool and silk), furs and wine. Grain was also sometimes exported abroad, but in small quantities. For centuries, international trade was conducted primarily along the coasts of the Mediterranean and Baltic Seas and along the Asian caravan routes leading to these seas. The main centers of international exchange of goods were the Italian cities of Venice, Genoa and Florence, the German cities of Augsburg and Nuremberg, the trading cities of Flanders (present-day Belgium) and the port cities of the Hanseatic League on the southern and eastern coasts of the Baltic Sea. However, trade did not play a noticeable role in the lives of ordinary people, and the discovery of America and circumnavigations around Africa and South America little has been changed about it. Nevertheless, the result of the courage and skill shown by the sailors was the shift of European sea trade routes towards the Atlantic and Indian oceans.
Industrial Revolution. British technological innovations of the 17th and 18th centuries. opened the way to increasing labor productivity, first in agriculture and then in industry. New machines and equipment made possible the emergence of larger enterprises for the production of cheap fabrics, and then steel smelting. These first steps toward mass production led to a dramatic increase in the movement of goods from country to country and were accompanied by improvements in transportation and communications. Soon France and Belgium embarked on the path of industrial development following the British model. Despite the significant progress achieved in the previous century, by the beginning of the 19th century. volume international trade goods and services did not exceed 3% of the value of world output. However, the industrial revolution gradually spread to Germany, the USA and (somewhat later) Japan. In the second half of the 19th century. new branches of production have appeared: mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and chemical industry . Soon the products of these industries accounted for a significant share of world trade. Large quantities of cargo were transported over long distances by railroads and ships; The telegraph greatly simplified the dissemination of information throughout the world. As a result of all these changes, the volume foreign trade
The era of free trade. The basis of free trade - the removal of restrictions on the movement of goods and services from country to country - was laid by economists classical school(mainly British). Great Britain since the 18th century. gradually, step by step, protectionism was abandoned, and by the early 1840s, mostly only tariffs on imported wheat remained in force. In 1846, the country abandoned protectionism in principle in relation to Agriculture. Contrary to expectations, wheat prices were in no hurry to fall, since no country in the world could export large quantities of it to the UK. Be that as it may, the 1850s and 1860s were a period of economic prosperity, and - rightly or wrongly - this prosperity was directly linked to free trade. Other trade liberalization measures taken by Britain and other countries made the period from 1850 to 1880 an era of minimal trade barriers. By 1870, however, British agriculture faced serious competition as a result of the development of ocean shipping. In the late 1870s, after a long economic crisis, Europe (primarily Great Britain) began to move away from the principles of free trade. At the same time, a surge of nationalism, which gave rise to political instability, forced states to seek increased treasury revenue to pay for weapons. In addition, nationalism has caused countries such as the United States and Germany to fear that their industrial development will encounter great difficulties if they cannot limit competition from Great Britain, a leader in the field. industrial production. Under these conditions, the idea of ​​protecting young industries has grown in popularity.
20th century. At the beginning of the century, the movement towards protectionism continued. However, in 1914, when the First World War, protectionism achieved relatively little success, although the world economy was no longer as free from trade controls as it was 50 years ago. International trade, however, was still governed by the gold standard, under which national currencies had a fixed value in gold and imbalances in payments between countries were settled by the transfer of gold in an appropriate amount. No country could maintain the competitiveness of its goods on the world market by devaluing its national currency; In addition, it was impossible to maintain a balance of payments deficit indefinitely. Therefore, all countries participating in international trade sought to ensure the competitiveness of their goods by reducing production costs.
Depression. During the First World War, the gold standard was undermined and replaced in the 1920s by the gold exchange standard, according to which all international payments were made in British pounds sterling and American dollars. This system, however, allowed the USA, Great Britain and those countries that managed to obtain loans from them to maintain deficit balances of payments for a long time. This system eventually collapsed, and its collapse was one of the causes of the Great Depression of the 1930s. Many states responded to the depression by tightening controls over foreign trade. One by one, they officially left the gold standard system, abolished fixed exchange rates and, by devaluing national currencies and introducing tariffs and quotas, tried to increase the competitiveness of goods by devaluing their currencies and introducing tariffs and quotas. This simultaneously protected national production from foreign competition. Such a goal could only be achieved at the expense of other countries - by pursuing a policy of “beggaring your neighbor.” Because many countries could and did play this game, the result was international disunity and world trade stagnated and even declined. The volume of industrial production in most countries was declining, and, as a result, it was declining industrial demand on primary products, which undermined international trade. The policy of national self-sufficiency was taken to extremes in the USSR, Nazi Germany and fascist Italy, which strived for autarky, i.e. national economic independence. Foreign trade in the USSR was in the hands of the state and centrally planned. Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany developed similar autarky programs, but in these countries government control was less comprehensive and restrictions on foreign trade were less stringent.
Post-war years. The disruption to international trade in the 1930s, exacerbated by the effects of World War II, was so severe that absolute trade volume in the 1940s did not exceed 1913 levels. Concerned about the negative consequences of this stagnation, the Allies began to develop plans for improving the world trade system. It was decided to create the International Monetary Fund (IMF), which was supposed to guard the stability of currencies. The implementation of plans directly related to trade liberalization did not proceed so smoothly. However, in the second half of the 1940s, with the help of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), it was possible to achieve normalization and a certain unification of the trade policies of almost all non-socialist countries of the world. GATT negotiations were conducted in the hope of eliminating as many trade barriers as possible - most notably quotas and subsidies - through the inclusion of a most favored nation clause in the agreement, ensuring that any benefit or concession in trade between countries would automatically apply to all parties to the agreement. Under the auspices of the GATT, a number of multilateral trade negotiations took place: several negotiation cycles in the 1950s, the Dillon Round in 1961, the Kennedy Round in the 1960s, the Tokyo Round in the late 1970s, and the late 1980s - early 1990s. -x - Uruguay round. At the end of the Kennedy Round, industrialized countries' tariffs on manufactured goods were reduced by an average of 10%. The Uruguay Round aimed to further reduce customs tariffs worldwide by an average of 40%, as well as cut trade subsidies and weaken other non-tariff barriers. Attempts to free up trade in temperate agricultural products have been relatively less successful. The main supplier of such products, the United States, put strong pressure on other countries to reduce tariffs, but most countries expressed determination to protect the interests of farmers. For example, during the Second World War, Great Britain faced enormous difficulties in supplying its population with imported food, so its government decided to stimulate the growth of national food production. British farmers were given subsidies that allowed the British population to buy food at world market prices, and farmers to receive a normal income. The production efficiency of British farmers was and remains very high, and they make up a small percentage of the country's population. On the contrary, farmers in some countries of continental Europe, especially France, did need protection due to their large numbers and low productivity. The French understood that they would eventually have to modernize agriculture, but for social and political reasons they did not strive for drastic changes and decided to protect national producers with protectionist measures. When France and other Western European countries formed what would become the European Union, they created a common agricultural policy with a complex system of managed prices and border taxes. Over time, this policy began to cause criticism, giving rise to overproduction and the accumulation of “mountains of oil” and “lakes of wine.” Some, however, argue that high levels of agricultural production provide insurance in an unpredictable world where food shortages regularly threaten. Despite the revival of agricultural protectionism in Britain and other European countries, international trade began to increase after the war. In the period from 1953 to 1960 it increased by an average of 7% per year, and in 1960-1974 - by almost 8% per year. Moreover, the growth of international trade has been faster than the increase in world industrial and agricultural output. Thus, there has been a trend towards higher specialization different countries in the production of various goods and services, although the share of border-crossing products in global output by the end of the 1970s did not reach the level of 1913, i.e. approximately 33%.
1970s. Despite a rebound in trade immediately after the end of World War II, differences in inflation rates between countries led to trade imbalances from time to time throughout the 1950s and 1960s. The UK and especially the US could neither control rising prices nor adapt to them by adjusting exchange rates. When exchange rates finally “floated” in the 1970s, they began to fluctuate in speculative foreign exchange markets in accordance with inflation and other economic indicators, - trade unions demanded an increase in wages to compensate for rising prices for imported goods (in particular, oil). As a result, measures to reduce imports by increasing foreign exchange rates often turned out to be insufficiently effective, and states, in order to eliminate the trade deficit, from time to time had to resort to regulated, or “dirty” floating, in which flexible exchange rate accompanied by large-scale borrowing. Ultimately, the crisis, manifested in a decline in production and rising unemployment coupled with ongoing inflation, led in 1975 (for the first time since 1945) to a drop in international trade by 4%. However, in 1976 it increased again - by 11% compared to 1975, and the value of total exports reached approximately 1 trillion. Doll.
1980-1990s. In the 1980s, the Uruguay Round of GATT began, which discussed agricultural subsidies as well as restrictions on trade in services. However, only by 1993, after eight years of negotiations, the round participants reached an agreement to adopt a new large-scale program for the development of free trade. On January 1, 1995, GATT was replaced by the World Trade Organization (WTO), which is responsible for practical implementation decisions taken during the Uruguay Round, as well as for continued liberalization in the areas of telecommunications, banking services, insurance, tourism and shipping. On January 1, 1994, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), concluded between Canada, the United States and Mexico, came into force. Aiming to eliminate all tariffs and other trade barriers in the region within 15 years, NAFTA is seen as an interim step toward creating a free trade area covering the entire Western Hemisphere. There are also reports from East Asian countries of their intention to form a similar trading bloc.
Development prospects. Despite the increasing integration of world markets, political, psychological and technical barriers to the movement of goods and services between countries still remain significant. The removal of these barriers would lead to a very significant transformation of the world economy, as well as the national economies of all countries of the world. According to many economists, the first obvious signs of such a transformation appeared already in the 1970s. Most of the industrialized countries of the world began to realize that such new industrial powers as South Korea, Hong Kong and Brazil are quite capable of producing many types of industrial products (eg clothing, electronic equipment, ships and cars) at lower costs than developed countries. It is likely that in the future the basic manufacturing industries of the developed world will experience great difficulties in competition with the products of new competitors. In order to maintain their current positions in world trade, industrialized countries will have to focus on the production of high technology products or on the provision of services that require vast experience(for example, in financial management), and also (in the case of the USA) in food production. Adapting to new trends will require huge and very painful changes. Without these changes, countries now in the industrialized group will lose their advantages in a future world where the ability to produce basic industrial products is likely to become much more common than at any time in the past.

Collier's Encyclopedia. - Open Society. 2000 .

Currently, international trade is the most developed form of international economic relations, one of the important factors in the globalization of the world economy.

The basis of international trade is the international division of labor, which is manifested in the specialization of individual countries, national sectors of the economy, and in the production of goods and services for the foreign market.

International trade is directly related to the world market, which is a system of stable commodity-money relations between countries and their economic entities associated with participation in the international division of labor. The world market as an economic category differs from the national market in territorial space, subjects of market relations and conditions for the supply of goods.

According to the definitions adopted by the UN, WTO, OECD international trade– this is paid trade turnover between countries, which represents a cross-border exchange of goods and services, the totality of foreign trade of all countries of the world. The subject of international trade are material things /finished products, machinery and equipment, raw materials, etc./, services, intellectual property /copyright and patent rights, etc./.

Thus, international trade includes trade in goods, services, and intellectual property. It is associated with information, investment, scientific and technical cooperation, international specialization and production cooperation. On the one hand, it contributes to the economic progress of industrialized countries, and on the other hand, it can slow down the economic development of developing countries. For example, the trade expansion of advanced countries has become an obstacle to the development of the manufacturing industry and the formation of national economic complexes in developing countries.

Modern international trade can be represented as a multi-tiered system consisting of three floors. On the lower floor there is a market for basic goods, which consists of agricultural products and extractive industries. On the middle floor there are semi-finished products and labor-intensive finished products, which include ferrous metallurgy products, Construction Materials, textiles, light industry products. This floor also houses machine tools, means of transport, basic chemical products, rubber and plastic products, and woodworking products. On the top floor there are high-tech goods and products from knowledge-intensive industries. These include office and telecommunications equipment, electronics, electrical equipment, precision measuring instruments, aerospace technology, medical equipment, pharmaceuticals, and other high-tech products.

International trade plays an extremely important role in the development of the world economy. Characterizing the role of international trade, it should be noted that currently 4/5 of the total volume of international economic relations falls on world trade. Modern international trade is developing at a high rate, which in the last decade has more than doubled the growth rate of global gross trade. internal product. The participation of various countries in international trade contributes to the intensification of production and the deepening of its specialization. The level of equipment utilization is increasing, mass production is being organized, new equipment is being introduced and modern technologies, if there is demand in the market, exports increase. In turn, increased exports lead to increased employment. According to UNCTAD, the increase in exports industrial goods, equal to 1% of GDP, increases the growth of the share of industry in total employment by 0.62 - 0.78%.

International trade makes it possible to mobilize and more effectively use the potential of the economy of a particular country, and contributes to the growth of labor productivity and income. As a result, international trade flows cover all regions of the world, in which international trade occupies a central place and serves as a powerful driver of economic growth. In particular, the greatest successes in the development of national economies were achieved by those countries where foreign trade developed at a high pace. These include the USA, Germany, Japan, and the newly industrialized countries of Asia. For many developing countries, international trade has been an important component of industrialization and accelerating economic growth.

Thus, in the development of the world economy, international trade is an important component, the role of which is difficult to overestimate. It was trade that contributed to the formation of monetary, financial and credit relations, industrial cooperation and specialization, and scientific and technical cooperation between countries. Trade in goods determined the dynamics of the international exchange of services. International trade prepared the preconditions for economic integration. With its help, countries not only increase production efficiency, but also increase their national wealth.

International trade provides undoubted advantages both in the production of goods and in the consumption of goods and services. It helps to improve the living standards of the population and production efficiency. However, these advantages are achieved in conditions of free trade, in the absence of prohibitions and restrictions. Liberalization and protectionism currently determine the main directions of development of world trade. Trade liberalization is associated with ensuring free access of goods and services to foreign markets; protectionism is intended to ensure regulation of access of foreign goods to domestic markets, to protect markets and national industries from unfair competition.

Taking this circumstance into account, the world community has developed a number of principles on which international trade is based.

The principle of “free trade” means the sovereign right to free trade with other countries, to freely enter into bilateral and multilateral agreements, to unite in international organizations, to enjoy the benefits of trade, and to participate in solving global problems of international trade.

The principle of “non-discrimination in trade” means the right of the state not to be discriminated against, to enjoy a common regime for access of goods to foreign markets, and the right to protect the national market.

The principle of “mutual benefit” means the right of states to take into account their interests when resolving issues and problems of international trade, the obligation of states not to use coercive measures in international trade aimed at extracting benefits or infringing on the rights of other states.

The principle of “providing national treatment” means the obligation of states to provide goods of imported origin with the same treatment in the domestic market as national goods.

The principle of “most favored nation” follows from bilateral trade agreements, GATT and UNCTAD documents. It means the right of states to the most favorable rates of customs tariffs in foreign customs territory in relation to their goods, the obligation of states to extend the most favorable rates of customs tariffs to foreign goods, as well as the right of states not to provide preferential rates that occur in cross-border trade, in trade with developing countries within common system preferences.

The principle of “preferences for developing countries” means the right of developing countries to special rates of customs duties in relation to their goods in the markets of developed countries without providing counter compensation, not to provide developed countries with those preferences that take place in trade between developing countries themselves, the right of developing countries to the use of subsidies, including export ones, for the purposes of social and economic development.

The principle of “freedom of transit” means the right of a landlocked state to free access to the sea for the purpose of international trade, the right to freedom of transit and the exemption of transit goods from customs duties, the obligation of coastal states to provide freedom of transit to goods of landlocked states to the sea.

Three essential components characterize international trade. These include the total volume of international trade / turnover /, geographical and commodity structure.

Global trade turnover accounts for the value of all goods moving across borders. In order to avoid double counting, world trade turnover is counted as world exports and as world imports.

In this case, two features are taken into account: the difference in the cost base of exports and imports; data on global trade turnover of goods and services are presented separately.

The form of trade is considered as a way of existing and expressing the content of commercial transactions.

The basis traditional forms International trade consists of export-import transactions for the purchase and sale of goods. These include import, export, re-import, re-export.

Import is a form of international trade that involves the purchase and importation of foreign goods into the buyer's country for subsequent sale in the domestic market. Its signs are the existence of a contract between counterparties and the goods crossing the border of the importing country. Import refers to the import of goods of foreign origin into the country from free zones /free warehouses/, as well as the import of goods for processing under customs control.

Re-import is the import into the country of goods previously exported in the export regime, which have not been processed abroad, without paying customs duties and taxes. The main reasons for returning goods are the return of unsold goods, the return of defective goods, the liquidation or bankruptcy of a partner.

When conducting import operations The buyer usually faces the following tasks: establishing a compromise on the price-quality criterion, as well as minimizing the risk of the transaction by checking the reliability of the counterparty, protective clauses of the contract, choosing a form of payment, an adequate degree of risk, insurance, checking the compliance of the transaction with the legal regime.

Export is a form of international trade that is associated with the sale and export of goods abroad for transfer to a foreign counterparty. The presence of a contract and the crossing of goods across the border are the main signs of export. According to the WTO, the largest exporters in the world are European Union, USA, China, Japan.

Re-export represents special form export. Its subject is the export of previously imported goods that have not been subjected to significant processing. In accordance with the Buyer’s requirements, only such operations as packaging, packing, and labeling are allowed with the goods.

In the practice of international trade, the following types of re-export take place.

Forced re-export is used in cases where previously imported goods cannot be sold by the importer on the domestic market with the necessary economic effect.

Speculative re-export is used when goods are purchased for the purpose of resale. Mainly concerns exchange-traded goods.

Technological re-export is typical for construction engineering companies when implementing turnkey projects, as well as when supplying complete equipment.

Accounted re-exports are operations carried out without delivery to the importer’s country. Customs statistics consider these transactions as exports.

Methods of organizing international trade are considered as ways of carrying out trade exchanges between its participants. It should be noted that the methods of international trade are as diverse as the content of foreign trade activities in general.

Traditionally, the main trading methods include direct, indirect and corporate methods. A formal sign of the international nature of a commercial transaction is the different nationality of the legal addresses of the parties to the transaction.

Since the second half of the 20th century, when international exchange, as defined by M. Pebro, takes on an “explosive character,” world trade has been developing at a high pace. In the period 1950-1998. world exports increased 16 times. According to Western experts, the period between 1950 and 1970 can be characterized as a “golden age” in the development of international trade. In the 70s, world exports fell to 5%, falling further in the 80s. In the late 80s he showed a noticeable revival. Since the second half of the 20th century, uneven dynamics of foreign trade have become evident. In the 90s Western Europe- the main center of international trade. Its exports were almost 4 times higher than US exports. By the end of the 80s, Japan began to become a leader in terms of competitiveness. During the same period, the “new industrial countries” of Asia - Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan - joined it. However, by the mid-90s, the United States again took a leading position in the world in terms of competitiveness.

On modern stage international trade plays an important role in the economic development of countries, regions, and the entire world community:

– foreign trade has become a powerful factor of economic growth;

– countries’ dependence on international trade has increased significantly.

Main factors influencing the growth of international trade:

- development international division labor and internationalization of production;

– NTR;

– activities of transnational corporations TNCs;

The WEF report on the state and stimulation of global trade is beginning to be published. Part of the report is a ranking of countries according to the degree of favorable conditions for the movement of goods and investment across borders. According to the 2009 report, the first place in the list of 121 countries was shared by Singapore and the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China. The last places in the ranking are occupied by Venezuela, Côte d'Ivoire and Chad. Russia took 109th place in terms of the integral indicator and 113th in terms of accessibility of external and domestic markets.

In the World Economic Forum (WEF) ranking, which reflects the degree of freedom of movement of goods across borders, Russia took 109th place out of 121 possible. Trade, according to the study's authors, is constrained primarily by an unfavorable business climate and high import duties. However, the high uncertainty of the development of the crisis does not give confidence that the countries leading the rating will not change their principles of openness: many are already resorting to protectionism. If this process gets out of control, all world trade will decline, which will inevitably lead to a second Great Depression.

Table 1 - Index of countries' involvement in international trade in 2009

The International Trade Engagement Index, calculated by the WEF, is based on several factors: access to domestic and foreign markets, administrative infrastructure at the border, efficiency of customs and others. The leaders in openness are Singapore and Hong Kong. The US has a favorable business climate and excellent infrastructure. But their position, according to the WEF, is weakened by restrictions on market access and concerns about the losses that crime, violence and terrorism can cause to businesses. China has good transport services and speed of import-export procedures, but trade development is hampered by limited access to its markets.

Russia's main problem is considered to be “extremely limited access to the market.” According to this criterion, the country was assigned 113th place. Import tariffs in Russia average 15% (114th place), including for agricultural imports - 26% (106th place).

Barriers to access Russian market, most likely, will be reduced in the process of accession to the WTO. However, the Russian government recently suspended the negotiation process for joining the trade organization in connection with the creation customs union with Kazakhstan and Belarus. According to the World Bank, by the spring of 2009, 17 G-20 countries had introduced new protectionist measures. Among the first were the United States with its “buy American” anti-crisis campaign.

2. Theories of international trade in the past and modern

International trade is a system of international commodity-money relations, consisting of foreign trade of all countries
peace.

International trade arose in the process of the emergence of the world market in the 16th - 18th centuries. Its development is one of the important factors in the development of the world economy.
New time.

The term international trade was first used in the 12th century
Italian economist Antonio Margaretti, author of the economic treatise “The Power of the Popular Masses in Northern Italy.”

Mercantilism is a system of views of economists from the 17th century, focused on the active intervention of the state in economic activity. Representatives of the direction: Thomas Maine, Antoine de Montchretien, William Stafford. The term was coined by Adam Smith, who criticized the writings of the mercantilists. Key points:

– the need to maintain an active trade balance of the state (excess of exports over imports);

– recognition of the benefits of bringing gold and other precious metals into the country in order to improve its well-being;

– money is a stimulus for trade, since it is believed that an increase in the supply of money increases the volume of the commodity supply;

– protectionism aimed at importing raw materials and semi-finished products and exporting finished products is welcomed;

– restrictions on the export of luxury goods, as it leads to the outflow of gold from the state.

Adam Smith's theory of absolute advantage - a country's real wealth consists of the goods and services available to its citizens. If a country can produce a particular good more and cheaper than other countries, then it has an absolute advantage. Some countries can produce goods more efficiently than others. The country's resources flow into profitable industries because the country cannot compete in unprofitable industries. This leads to an increase in the country's productivity as well as skills work force; long periods of production of homogeneous products provide stimulation for the production of more effective methods work. Natural Benefits:

– climate;

– territory;

– resources.

Acquired advantages: production technology, that is, the ability to produce a variety of products.

David Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage - specialization in the production of goods that have maximum comparative advantages is also beneficial in the absence of absolute advantages. A country should specialize in exporting goods in which it has the greatest absolute advantage (if it has an absolute advantage in both goods) or the smallest absolute disadvantage (if it has no absolute advantage in either product). Specialization in certain types of goods is beneficial for each of these countries and leads to an increase in total production, trade is motivated even if one country has an absolute advantage in the production of all goods over another country. An example in this case would be the exchange of English cloth for Portuguese wine, which benefits both countries, even if the absolute costs of producing both cloth and wine are lower in Portugal than in England.

Heckscher-Ohlin theory - according to this theory, a country exports goods for the production of which it uses intensively a relatively abundant factor of production, and imports goods for the production of which it experiences a relative shortage of factors of production. The necessary conditions existence:

– countries participating in international exchange have a tendency to export those goods and services for the production of which they mainly use production factors that are in abundance, and, conversely, a tendency to import those products for which there is a shortage of some factors;

– the development of international trade leads to the equalization of “factor” prices, that is, the income received by the owner of a given factor;

– there is a possibility, given sufficient international mobility of factors of production, to replace the export of goods by moving the factors themselves between countries.

Leontief's paradox - the essence of the paradox was that the share of capital-intensive goods in exports could grow, while labor-intensive goods could decline. In fact, when analyzing the US trade balance, the share of labor-intensive goods did not decrease. The solution to Leontief's paradox was that the labor intensity of goods imported by the United States is quite high, but the price of labor in the value of the product is much lower than in US exports. The capital intensity of labor in the United States is significant, together with high labor productivity this leads to a significant impact on the price of labor in export supplies. The share of labor-intensive supplies in US exports is growing, confirming the Leontief paradox. This is due to the growth in the share of services, labor prices and the structure of the US economy. This leads to an increase in labor intensity throughout the American economy, not excluding exports.

Michael Porter's theory - this theory introduces the concept of country competitiveness. It is national competitiveness, from Porter’s point of view, that determines success or failure in specific industries and the place that a country occupies in the world economic system. National competitiveness is determined by the capacity of industry. At the heart of the explanation of a country's competitive advantage is the role of the home country in stimulating renewal and improvement (that is, in stimulating the production of innovation). Government measures to maintain competitiveness:

– government influence on factor conditions;

– government influence on demand conditions;

– government impact on related and supporting industries;

– the impact of government on the strategy, structure and rivalry of firms.

Rybchinsky's theorem states that if the value of one of two factors of production increases, then in order to maintain constant prices for goods and factors it is necessary to increase the production of those products that intensively use this increased factor, and reduce the production of other products that intensively use the fixed factor . In order for the prices of goods to remain constant, the prices of factors of production must remain constant. Factor prices can remain constant only if the ratio of factors used in two industries remains constant. In the case of growth of one factor, this can only occur if production in the industry in which that factor is intensively used is increased and production in another industry is reduced, which will lead to the release of the fixed factor, which will become available for use along with the growing factor in the expanding industry .

The theory of Samuelson and Stolper - in the middle of the 20th century. (1948) American economists P. Samuelson and V. Stolper improved the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, imagining that in the case of homogeneity of production factors, identity of technology, perfect competition and complete mobility of goods, international exchange equalizes the price of factors of production between countries. The authors base their concept on Ricardo's model with additions from Heckscher and Ohlin and view trade not just as a mutually beneficial exchange, but also as a means to reduce the development gap between countries.

3. Russia’s place in world trade

Russia is located between two of the world's most dynamically developing centers of business activity - Europe and East Asia. Let us recall that a powerful transport system was created in the USSR, which made it possible to receive annually up to 15 billion dollars in profit from transit transportation.

Suffice it to say that through Russian Federation no more than 1–2% of all trade between East and West passes through, including less than 1% of container traffic, the annual volume of which in the NAFTA-EU-East Asia triangle has reached 6 million units. In the 1990s, maritime transport increased by 12% per year. The volume of transportation on the Trans-Siberian Railway fell 6 times compared to 1990, and container traffic - 8 times, to a meager level of 22 thousand containers per year. Currently, Russia's income from transit is less than $1 billion a year.

The reasons for the current situation are connected, first of all, with the consequences of the collapse of the USSR and the collapse of a single transport system. Russia found itself cut off by customs barriers of the newly independent states from its partners in Europe and the Middle East, lost its main seaports on the Baltic and Black Sea, and lost a significant part of its merchant fleet. A negative role was played by the deterioration in the quality of services provided by Russia transport services, lack of necessary legislative framework, erroneous tariff policy, rampant crime and corruption. Throughout the 1990s, investment in the development of the transport system fell sharply. All this affected the competitiveness of Russian transport in the fight against transnational shipping companies that have established cheap container transportation. As a result, despite the loss of time, cargo flows took the southern route, across the Indian Ocean.

Russia could use its unique geographical position to gain a leading position in the global services market, primarily transport and communications. The growth rate of trade in services is twice as fast as that of trade in goods. The world services market already accounts for approximately a quarter of total global trade turnover. Moreover, only industrialized countries export transport services exceeding 250 billion dollars a year.

We should not forget about e-commerce, which has emerged thanks to the Internet. A customer buys a product from a seller thousands of miles away and expects immediate delivery. In these conditions, the speed of order fulfillment becomes a decisive factor. At the same time, attempts are being made to develop transcontinental transport flows bypassing Russia. For example, plans to recreate the Great Silk Road, due to political factors. IN last years EU cargo is increasingly traveling to East Asia via the Transcaucasus and Central Asia under the TRACECA program. This has far-reaching consequences, stimulating the formation of the GUUAM (Georgia, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan, Moldova) alliance, which is trying to confront Russia in the CIS.

Thus, the Russian Federation has to face competition for a place in the emerging transcontinental land transport system. However, it still remains competitive in this area. Occupying more than 30% of the territory of the Eurasian continent, Russia can play a special role in ensuring connections between the two regions, becoming a natural transport bridge between Europe and Asia. The Russian transport network is relatively well developed: Trans-Siberian and BAM, seaports in all basins, network air lines and airports that provide the shortest transportation routes, the direction of which coincides with the configuration of cargo flows. It will be able to provide many times larger volumes of transit traffic (approximately 15% of total cargo traffic) in communications from Europe to Asia, and in the future from Europe to Asia to America.

It should be recalled that 3 of the 9 EU international transport corridors run through Russian territory. Such transit is preferable for carriers, since it simplifies the transport scheme as much as possible: one country - one customs legislation.

However, so far the potential of our country is poorly used. The integration of our country’s transport into the global transport system is an important component of Russia’s strategy for entering the international economy. Therefore, the improvement of the domestic transport system and the implementation of large-scale transit opportunities come to the fore. Transit revenues should become an important source of foreign exchange earnings for the state budget, which finds itself overly dependent on world energy prices. Russia will need at least 5 years to reach the volume of transit traffic of 1991. By 2015, additional revenues due to this could increase by 8–10 billion dollars.

The development of the Northern Sea Route ensures the workload of the Russian shipbuilding industry. In next year's budget, the government intends to increase costs for operating the existing icebreaker fleet.

The unified energy system of the CMEA countries collapsed long ago, but today a number of projects are beginning to be implemented that provide for the supply of electricity from Russia to neighboring countries.

Russia's integration into the global economy will be facilitated if, instead of competing with the former Soviet republics, Russia can unite its efforts by creating a transcontinental transport and energy axis.

Negative trends in the development of Russian foreign trade.

1. The structure of exports shows a complete discrepancy between the profile of Russia’s international specialization modern trends development of world trade

2. The asymmetry of foreign trade is obvious economic ties Russia in relation to its main trading partners, i.e. economically developed countries

3. Vulnerability of Russia’s foreign trade position in the event of unfavorable conditions on world markets or the introduction of special sanctions

4. A significant part of Russian exports is the export of environmentally friendly products hazardous industries, in particular in the metallurgical, pulp and paper, chemical industries

The decline in trade turnover is primarily due to the consequences of the global financial and economic crisis.

The foreign trade turnover of the Russian Federation in 2009 amounted to $469 billion (including data on trade with the Republic of Belarus) and compared to 2008 decreased by 36.2%, including with non-CIS countries the foreign trade turnover amounted to $400.5 billion (a decrease of 36 .3%), with the CIS countries - $68.5 billion (a decrease of 35.5%).

Russia's trade surplus in 2009 decreased by 33% and amounted to $134.3 billion.

At the end of 2009, Russia’s exports amounted to $301.6 billion and decreased by 35.5%, including to non-CIS countries - $254.9 billion (a decrease of 35.9%), to the CIS countries - $46.7 billion (a decrease by 32.9%).

The reason for the reduction in the value of Russia's exports in 2009 compared to 2008 was a sharp drop at the end of 2008 in the price level of the main raw materials exported by Russia, while their gradual growth was recorded during 2009.

Russia's imports in 2009 amounted to $167.4 billion and decreased by 37.3%, including from non-CIS countries - $145.6 billion (a decrease of 36.8%), from the CIS countries - $21.8 billion (-40 ,5%).

The decrease in the value of Russian goods is associated with a reduction in the physical volumes of import supplies, while the average prices of imported goods remained almost at the level of last year. In the commodity structure of imports from non-CIS countries, the share of machinery and equipment in 2009 accounted for 46% (in 2008 - 55.9%). In the commodity structure of imports from the CIS countries in 2009, the share of machinery and equipment amounted to 23.7% (in 2008 - 28.8%).

In the country structure of Russia's foreign trade, the European Union occupies a special place as the country's largest economic partner. The EU accounted for 50.3% of Russian trade turnover in 2009 (52.1% in 2008). In 2009, the CIS countries accounted for 14.6% of Russian trade turnover (in 2008 - 14.5%), the EurAsEC countries - 8.7% (8.2%), APEC countries - 20.7% (20. 3%).

Main trading partners In Russia in 2009, among the non-CIS countries were: Germany, trade turnover with which amounted to $39.9 billion (59.4% of 2008), the Netherlands - $39.9 (64.5%), China - $39.5 billion (78 .8%), Italy - $32.9 billion (62.2%), Turkey - $19.6 billion (50.8%), USA - $18.4 billion (69%), France - $17.1 (77. 2%), Poland - $16.7 billion (61.9%), Japan - $14.5 billion (50.2%), Finland - $13.1 billion (58.6%).

According to American statistics, which differ markedly from Russian ones due to differences in accounting systems, US exports to Russia in 2009 amounted to about $5.4 billion, and imports - about $18.2 billion. Accordingly, the positive trade balance for Russia exceeded $12 .8 billion. A year earlier it was $4.6 billion more. As for specific product items, the Americans significantly reduced imports of Russian fuel and lubricants (to $13 billion versus $17 billion a year earlier), halved the import of metals and materials (to $2.6 billion versus $5.4 billion), as well as chemical goods ( up to $1.4 billion versus $2.95 billion). They began to buy slightly more only drinks and tobacco ($152 million versus $122 million), as well as machinery and equipment ($205 million versus $199 million).

At the end of 2009, Russia exported 150.7 billion cubic meters of natural gas, which is 13.5% less than in 2008 (174.3 billion cubic meters), including supplies to non-CIS countries fell by 24% to 120.5 billion cubic meters. This data is provided today by the Federal Customs Service (FCS).

Revenues from gas exports in 2009 decreased 1.7 times to $39.381 billion. Russian oil exports increased by 1.9% to 225.881 million tons compared to 221.636 million tons in 2008. The volume of oil supplies to non-CIS countries amounted to 210.926 million tons (in 2008 - 204.876 million tons). The revenue of Russian oil exporters in 2009 decreased 1.6 times to $93.487 billion.

Practical task

Purpose of the work: to consider the sectoral structure of the state and analyze it.

The country produced goods and services over the year: cars $19.4 billion, light industry$27 billion, mining production $11 billion, agricultural products $27 billion, services produced $15 billion. The country's population at the beginning of the year was 29.95 million people, at the end of the year 30.25 million people

Light industry

Mining industry

Agriculture

Services sector

Total:

Draw conclusions on the sectoral structure of the state’s economy.
19,52

Light industry

27,16

Mining industry

11,07

Agriculture

27,16

Services sector

15,09

Total:

99,4

100,00

Let's calculate the average annual population of the country for the year:

(29.95+30.25)/2 = 30.1 million people = 0.0301 billion people

Let's calculate GDP per capita:

GDPn=99400/30.1 = 3302.33 million rubles.

As we see from the table, in the structure of GDP the largest specific gravity light industry occupies 27.16% and agriculture 27.16%, a less significant share of the automotive industry is 19.52% and the service sector is 15.09%. The share of the mining industry is the least significant - only 11.07%.

The country's specialization in the production of light industry and agricultural products.

8. Trukhachev V.I., Lyakisheva I.N., Erokhin V.L. International trade. – M.: Finance and Statistics, 2009.

Fomishin S.V. International economic relations. – Rostov-on-Don, Phoenix, 2007.

Internet resource of the World Trade Organization –

Originating in ancient times, world trade reaches significant proportions and acquires the character of stable international commodity-money relations at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries.

A powerful impetus for this process was the creation in a number of more industrially developed countries (England, Holland, etc.) of large machine production, focused on large-scale and regular imports of raw materials from economically less developed countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, and the export of industrial goods to these countries , mainly for consumer purposes.

In the 20th century world trade has experienced a number of deep crises. The first of them was associated with the world war of 1914-1918, it led to a long and deep disruption of world trade that lasted until the end of the Second World War, which shook the entire structure of international economic relations to the core. In the post-war period, world trade faced new difficulties associated with the collapse of the colonial system. It should be noted that all these crises were overcome.

In general, a characteristic feature of the post-war period was a noticeable acceleration in the pace of development of world trade, which reached the highest level in the entire previous history of human society. Moreover, the growth rate of world trade exceeded the growth rate of world GDP.

Since the second half of the 20th century, when international exchange became “explosive,” world trade has been developing at a high pace. In the period 1950-1994. world trade turnover increased 14 times. According to Western experts, the period between 1950 and 1970 can be characterized as a “golden age” in the development of international trade. Thus, the average annual growth rate of world exports was in the 50s. 6%, in the 60s. - 8.2. In the period from 1970 to 1991, the physical volume of world exports (that is, calculated in constant prices) increased 2.5 times, the average annual growth rate was 9.0%, in 1991-1995. this figure was 6.2%.

The volume of world trade increased accordingly. So in 1965 it amounted to 172.0 billion, in 1970 - 193.4 billion, in 1975 - 816.5 billion dollars, in 1980 - 1.9 trillion, in 1990 - 3 .3 trillion and in 1995 - over 5 trillion dollars.

It was during this period that an annual 7% growth in world exports was achieved. However, already in the 70s it dropped to 5%, decreasing even more in the 80s. At the end of the 1980s, world exports showed a noticeable recovery (up to 8.5% in 1988). After a clear decline in the early 90s, in the mid-90s it again demonstrates high, sustainable rates.

The stable, sustainable growth of international trade was influenced by a number of factors:

development of the international division of labor and internationalization of production;

Scientific and technological revolution, promoting the renewal of fixed capital, the creation of new sectors of the economy, accelerating the reconstruction of old ones;

active activity of transnational corporations in the global market;

regulation (liberalization) of international trade through the activities of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT);

liberalization of international trade, the transition of many countries to a regime that includes the abolition of quantitative restrictions on imports and a significant reduction in customs duties - the formation of free economic zones;

development of trade and economic integration processes: elimination of regional barriers, formation of common markets, free trade zones;

obtaining political independence of the former colonial countries. Singling out from among them “newly industrialized countries” with an economic model oriented toward the foreign market.

According to existing forecasts, the high pace of world trade will continue in the future: by 2003, the volume of world trade will increase by 50% and exceed $7 trillion.

Since the second half of the 20th century, the uneven dynamics of foreign trade have become noticeably evident. This affected the balance of power between countries in the world market. The dominant position of the United States was shaken. In turn, German exports approached American exports, and in some years even exceeded them. In addition to Germany, exports from other Western European countries also grew at a noticeable pace. In the 1980s, Japan made a significant breakthrough in international trade. By the end of the 80s, Japan began to become a leader in terms of competitiveness factors. During the same period, the “new industrial countries” of Asia - Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan - joined it. However, by the mid-90s, the United States again took a leading position in the world in terms of competitiveness. They are closely followed by Singapore, Hong Kong, as well as Japan, which previously held first place for six years.

For now, developing countries mainly remain suppliers of raw materials, food and relatively simple finished goods to the world market. However, the growth rate of trade in raw materials lags noticeably behind the overall growth rate of world trade. This lag is due to the development of substitutes for raw materials, their more economical use, and the intensification of their processing.

Industrially the developed countries almost completely captured the market for high-tech products. At the same time, some developing countries, primarily “newly industrialized countries,” have managed to achieve significant changes in the restructuring of their exports, increasing the share of finished products, industrial products, incl. machines and equipment. Thus, the share of industrial exports of developing countries in the total world volume in the early 90s amounted to 16.3%.

International trade is a system of international commodity-money relations, consisting of foreign trade of all countries of the world. International trade arose in the process of the emergence of the world market in the 16th century. -XVIII centuries. Its development is one of the important factors in the development of the world economy of the New Age.

The term international trade was first used in the 12th century by the Italian economist Antonio Margaretti, author of the economic treatise “Power of the Popular Masses in Northern Italy.”

Advantages of countries participating in international trade:

• the intensification of the reproduction process in national economies is a consequence of increased specialization, the creation of opportunities for the emergence and development of mass production, an increase in the level of equipment utilization, and an increase in the efficiency of the introduction of new technologies;
• an increase in export supplies entails an increase in employment;
• international competition creates the need to improve enterprises;
• export earnings serve as a source of capital accumulation aimed at industrial development.

Theories of international trade

The development of world trade is based on the benefits it brings to the countries participating in it. The theory of international trade gives an idea of ​​what is the basis of this gain from foreign trade, or what determines the directions of foreign trade flows. International trade serves as a tool through which countries, by developing their specialization, can increase the productivity of existing resources and thus increase the volume of goods and services they produce and improve the level of well-being of the population.

Many famous economists have dealt with international trade issues. Basic theories of international trade - Mercantilist theory, A. Smith's theory of absolute advantage, D. Ricardo and D. S. Mill's theory of comparative advantage, Heckscher-Ohlin theory, Leontief paradox, Theory life cycle goods, M. Porter's Theory, Rybczynski's Theorem, and Samuelson and Stolper's Theory.

Mercantilist theory. Mercantilism is a system of views of economists of the 15th-17th centuries, focused on the active intervention of the state in economic activity. Representatives of the direction: Thomas Maine, Antoine de Montchretien, William Stafford. The term was proposed by Adam Smith, who criticized the works of mercantilists. The mercantilist theory of international trade arose during the period of initial accumulation of capital and great geographical discoveries, and was based on the idea that the presence of gold reserves was the basis for the prosperity of a nation. Foreign trade, the mercantilists believed, should be focused on obtaining gold, since in the case of simple commodity exchange, ordinary goods, once used, cease to exist, and gold accumulates in the country and can be used again for international exchange.

Trading was viewed as a zero-sum game, where the gain of one participant automatically means the loss of another, and vice versa. To obtain maximum benefits, it was proposed to strengthen government intervention and control over the state of foreign trade. The trade policy of the mercantilists, called protectionism, was to create barriers in international trade that protect domestic producers from foreign competition, stimulate exports and limit imports by introducing customs duties on foreign goods and receiving gold and silver in return for their goods.

The main provisions of the Mercantilist theory of international trade:

• the need to maintain an active trade balance of the state (excess of exports over imports);
• recognition of the benefits of bringing gold and other precious metals into the country in order to improve its welfare;
• money is a stimulus for trade, since it is believed that an increase in the supply of money increases the volume of the commodity supply;
• protectionism aimed at importing raw materials and semi-finished products and exporting finished products is welcomed;
• restrictions on the export of luxury goods, as it leads to the outflow of gold from the state.

Adam Smith's theory of absolute advantage. In his work “An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations,” in a polemic with mercantilists, Smith formulated the idea that countries are interested in the free development of international trade because they can benefit from it regardless of whether they are exporters or importers. Each country must specialize in the production of that product where it has an absolute advantage - a benefit based on different amounts of production costs in individual countries participating in foreign trade. Refusal to produce goods for which countries do not have absolute advantages, and the concentration of resources on the production of other goods lead to an increase in overall production volumes and an increase in the exchange of products of their labor between countries.

Adam Smith's theory of absolute advantage suggests that a country's real wealth consists of the goods and services available to its citizens. If a country can produce a particular good more and cheaper than other countries, then it has an absolute advantage. Some countries can produce goods more efficiently than others. The country's resources flow into profitable industries because the country cannot compete in unprofitable industries. This leads to an increase in the country's productivity as well as the skill of the workforce; Long periods of producing homogeneous products provide incentives for the development of more efficient work methods.

Natural advantages for a particular country: climate; territory; resources. Acquired advantages for a particular country: production technology, that is, the ability to produce a variety of products.

The theory of comparative advantage by D. Ricardo and D. S. Mill. In his work “Principles of Political Economy and Taxation” Ricardo showed that the principle of absolute advantage is only a special case general rule, and substantiated the theory of comparative (relative) advantage. When analyzing the directions of development of foreign trade, two circumstances should be taken into account: firstly, economic resources– natural, labor, etc. – are distributed unevenly between countries; secondly, the efficient production of various goods requires various technologies or combinations of resources.

The advantages that countries have are not given once and for all, D. Ricardo believed, therefore even countries that have absolutely more high levels production costs, can benefit from trade exchange. It is in the interests of each country to specialize in production in which it has the greatest advantage and the least weakness and for which not absolute, but relative benefit is the greatest - this is D. Ricardo’s law of comparative advantage. According to Ricardo, the total volume of output will be greatest when each product is produced by the country in which the opportunity costs are lower. Thus, comparative advantage is a benefit based on lower opportunity costs in the exporting country. Hence, as a result of specialization and trade, both countries involved in the exchange will benefit. An example in this case would be the exchange of English cloth for Portuguese wine, which benefits both countries, even if the absolute costs of producing both cloth and wine are lower in Portugal than in England.

Subsequently, D.S. Mill, in his work “Foundations of Political Economy,” explained the price at which exchange is carried out. According to Mill, the price of exchange is set by the laws of supply and demand at such a level that the totality of each country's exports allows it to pay for the totality of its imports - this is the law of international value.

Heckscher-Ohlin theory. This theory of scientists from Sweden, which appeared in the 30s of the twentieth century, belongs to the neoclassical concepts of international trade, since these economists did not adhere to labor theory value, considering productive, along with labor, capital and land. Therefore, their reason for trading is different security factors of production in countries participating in international trade.

The main provisions of their theory boiled down to the following: firstly, countries have a tendency to export those goods for the production of which the factors of production available in abundance in the country are used, and, conversely, to import goods for the production of which relatively rare factors are needed; secondly, in international trade there is a tendency to equalize “factor prices”; third, the export of goods can be replaced by the movement of factors of production across national borders.

The neoclassical concept of Heckscher-Ohlin turned out to be convenient for explaining the reasons for the development of trade between developed and developing countries, when in exchange for raw materials coming to developed countries, machinery and equipment were imported into developing countries. However, not all phenomena of international trade fit into the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, since today the center of gravity of international trade is gradually shifting to mutual trade of “similar” goods between “similar” countries.

Leontief's paradox. These are studies by an American economist who questioned the provisions of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory and showed that in the post-war period the US economy specialized in those types of production that required relatively more labor rather than capital. The essence of Leontiev's paradox was that the share of capital-intensive goods in exports could grow, while labor-intensive goods could decline. In fact, when analyzing the US trade balance, the share of labor-intensive goods did not decrease. The solution to Leontief's paradox was that the labor intensity of goods imported by the United States is quite high, but the price of labor in the value of the product is much lower than in US exports. The capital intensity of labor in the United States is significant, together with high labor productivity this leads to a significant impact on the price of labor in export supplies. The share of labor-intensive supplies in US exports is growing, confirming the Leontief paradox. This is due to the growth in the share of services, labor prices and the structure of the US economy. This leads to an increase in labor intensity throughout the American economy, not excluding exports.

Product life cycle theory. It was put forward and substantiated by R. Vernoy, C. Kindelberger and L. Wels. In their opinion, a product, from the moment it appears on the market until it leaves it, goes through a cycle consisting of five stages:

• product development. The company finds and implements a new product idea. At this time, sales volume is zero, costs rise.
• bringing the product to market. There is no profit due to high costs for marketing activities, sales volume is growing slowly;
• rapid market penetration, increased profits;
• maturity. Sales growth is slowing down, since the bulk of consumers have already been attracted. The level of profit remains unchanged or decreases due to increased costs of marketing activities to protect the product from competition;
• decline. Decline in sales and reduction in profits.

M. Porter's theory. This theory introduces the concept of country competitiveness. It is national competitiveness, from Porter’s point of view, that determines the success or failure in specific industries and the place that a country occupies in the world economic system. National competitiveness is determined by the capacity of industry. At the heart of the explanation of a country's competitive advantage is the role of the home country in stimulating renewal and improvement (that is, in stimulating the production of innovation). Government measures to maintain competitiveness:

• government influence on factor conditions;
• government influence on demand conditions;
• government impacts on related and supporting industries;
• government influence on firm strategy, structure, and competition.

A serious incentive to success in the global market is sufficient competition in the domestic market. Artificial dominance of enterprises using state support, from Porter’s point of view, is a negative decision that leads to waste and inefficient use of resources. The theoretical premises of M. Porter served as the basis for developing recommendations at the state level to increase the competitiveness of foreign trade goods in Australia, New Zealand and the USA in the 90s of the twentieth century.

Rybczynski's theorem. The theorem states that if the value of one of the two factors of production increases, then in order to maintain constant prices for goods and factors it is necessary to increase the production of those products that intensively use this increased factor, and reduce the production of other products that intensively use the fixed factor. In order for the prices of goods to remain constant, the prices of factors of production must remain constant. Factor prices can remain constant only if the ratio of factors used in two industries remains constant. In the case of growth of one factor, this can only occur if production in the industry in which that factor is intensively used is increased and production in another industry is reduced, which will lead to the release of the fixed factor, which will become available for use along with the growing factor in the expanding industry .

Samuelson and Stolper theory. In the middle of the 20th century. (1948), American economists P. Samuelson and V. Stolper improved the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, imagining that in the case of homogeneity of production factors, identical technology, perfect competition and complete mobility of goods, international exchange equalizes the price of production factors between countries. The authors base their concept on Ricardo's model with additions from Heckscher and Ohlin and view trade not just as a mutually beneficial exchange, but also as a means to reduce the development gap between countries.

Development and structure of international trade

International trade is a form of exchange of labor products in the form of goods and services between sellers and buyers of different countries. The characteristics of international trade are the volume of world trade turnover, the commodity structure of exports and imports and its dynamics, as well as the geographical structure of international trade. Export is the sale of goods to a foreign buyer and their export abroad. Import is the purchase of goods from foreign sellers with their import from abroad.

Modern international trade is developing at a fairly high pace. Among the main trends in the development of international trade, the following can be identified:

1. There is a preferential development of trade in comparison with sectors of material production and the entire world economy as a whole. Thus, according to some estimates, during the period from the 50s to the 90s of the 20th century, the world's GDP grew approximately 5 times, and merchandise exports - no less than 11 times. Accordingly, if in 2000 the world's GDP was estimated at $30 trillion, then the volume of international trade - exports plus imports - was $12 trillion.

2. In the structure of international trade, the share of manufacturing products is growing (up to 75%), of which more than 40% are engineering products. Only 14% is fuel and other raw materials, the share of agricultural products is about 9%, clothing and textiles are 3%.

3. Among the changes in the geographical direction of international trade flows, there is an increasing role of developed countries and China. However, developing countries (mainly due to the emergence of new industrial countries with a pronounced export orientation from among them) managed to significantly increase their influence in this area. In 1950, they accounted for only 16% of world trade turnover, and by 2001 - already 41.2%.

Since the second half of the 20th century, uneven dynamics of foreign trade have become evident. In the 1960s, Western Europe is the main center of international trade. Its exports were almost 4 times higher than US exports. By the end of the 1980s, Japan began to become a leader in terms of competitiveness. During the same period, the “new industrial countries” of Asia - Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan - joined it. However, by the mid-1990s, the United States took a leading position in the world in terms of competitiveness. Exports of goods and services in the world in 2007, according to the WTO, amounted to 16 trillion. US dollars. The share of the goods group is 80%, and services - 20% of the total trade volume in the world.

4. The most important area of ​​development of foreign trade is intra-company trade within TNCs. According to some data, intra-company international deliveries account for up to 70% of all world trade, 80–90% of sales of licenses and patents. Since TNCs are the most important link in the world economy, world trade is at the same time trade within TNCs.

5. Trade in services is expanding, in several ways. The first is cross-border delivery, such as distance learning. Another way of supplying services - consumption abroad - involves the movement of the consumer or the movement of his property to the country where the service is provided, for example, the service of a guide on a tourist trip. The third method is a commercial presence, for example, the operation of a foreign bank or restaurant in the country. And the fourth way is the movement of individuals who are service providers abroad, for example, doctors or teachers. The leaders in trade in services are the most developed countries of the world.

Regulation of international trade

Regulation of international trade is divided into government regulation and regulation through international agreements and the creation of international organizations.

Methods government regulation International trade can be divided into two groups: tariff and non-tariff.

1. Tariff methods come down to the use of customs duties - special taxes that are imposed on products of international trade. Customs tariffs are fees levied by the state for processing the transportation of goods and other valuables abroad. This fee, called duty, is taken into account in the price of the product and is ultimately paid by the consumer. Customs taxation involves the use of import duties to hinder the import of foreign goods into the country; export duties are used less frequently.

According to the form of calculation, duties are distinguished:

a) ad valorem, which are charged as a percentage of the price of the product;

b) specific, charged in the form of a certain amount of money per volume, weight or unit of goods.

The most important goals of using import duties are both direct restriction of imports and restriction of competition, including unfair competition. Its extreme form is dumping - the sale of goods on the foreign market at prices lower than those existing for an identical product on the domestic market.

2. Non-tariff methods are diverse and represent a set of direct and indirect restrictions on foreign economic activity through an extensive system of economic, political and administrative measures. These include:

• quotas (provisioning) - the establishment of quantitative parameters within which it is possible to carry out certain foreign trade operations. In practice, quotas are usually established in the form of lists of goods, the free import or export of which is limited to a percentage of the volume or value of their national production. When the quantity or amount of the contingent is exhausted, the export (import) of the corresponding product is terminated;
• licensing – issuing special permits (licenses) to business entities to conduct foreign trade operations. It is often used in conjunction with quotas to control license-based quotas. In some cases, the licensing system acts as a type of customs taxation applied by a country to generate additional customs revenue;
• embargo – a ban on export-import operations. It may apply to a specific group of goods or be introduced in relation to individual countries;
• currency control is a restriction in the monetary sphere. For example, a financial quota may limit the amount of currency an exporter can receive. Quantitative restrictions may apply to the volume of foreign investment, the amount of foreign currency exported by citizens abroad, etc.;
• taxes on export-import transactions - taxes as non-tariff measures that are not regulated by international agreements, such as customs duties, and are therefore levied on both domestic and foreign goods. State subsidies for exporters are also possible;
• administrative measures that are mainly related to restrictions on the quality of goods sold on the domestic market. National standards occupy an important place. Failure to comply with country standards may lead to a ban on the import of imported products and their sale on the domestic market. Similarly, the system of national transport tariffs often creates advantages in paying for the transportation of goods to exporters compared to importers. In addition, other forms of indirect restrictions can also be used: the closure of certain ports and railway stations for foreigners, orders to use a certain share of national raw materials in the production of products, a ban on the purchase government organizations imported goods in the presence of national analogues, etc.

The high importance of MT for the development of the world economy has led to the creation by the world community of special international regulatory organizations, whose efforts are aimed at developing rules, principles, procedures for carrying out international trade transactions and monitoring their implementation by member states of these organizations.

A special role in regulating international trade is played by multilateral agreements operating within the framework of:

• GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade);
• WTO();
• GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services);
• TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Agreement);

GATT. In accordance with the fundamental provisions of the GATT, trade between countries should be carried out on the basis of the most favored nation principle (MFN), i.e., most favored nation (MFN) treatment is established in the trade of GATT member countries, guaranteeing equality and non-discrimination. However, at the same time, exceptions from the PNB were established for countries included in economic integration groups; for countries, former colonies, which are in traditional ties with the former metropolises; for cross-border and coastal trade. According to the most rough estimates, “exceptions” account for at least 60% of world trade finished products, which deprives PNB of its universality.

GATT recognizes customs tariffs as the only acceptable means of regulating the transport industry, which are reduced iteratively (from round to round). Currently, their average level is 3-5%. But even here there are exceptions that allow the use of non-tariff means of protection (quotas, export and import licenses, tax breaks). These include cases of application of programs to regulate agricultural production, disturbances in the balance of payments, and the implementation of regional development and assistance programs.

GATT contains the principle of refusing unilateral actions and making decisions in favor of negotiations and consultations if such actions (decisions) could lead to a restriction of free trade.

GATT - the predecessor of the WTO - made its decisions at negotiation rounds of all members of this Agreement. There were eight of them in total. The most significant decisions that guide the WTO in regulating MT to date were made at the last (eighth) Uruguay round (1986-1994). This round further expanded the range of issues regulated by the WTO. It included trade in services, as well as a program to reduce customs duties, intensify efforts to regulate trade goods in certain industries (including agriculture), and strengthen control over those areas of national economic policy that affect the country’s foreign trade.

It was decided to escalate customs duties as the degree of processing of goods increases while reducing duties on raw materials and eliminating them on certain types of alcoholic beverages, construction and agricultural equipment, office furniture, toys, pharmaceutical products - only 40% of world imports. Liberalization of trade in clothing, textiles and agricultural products continued. But the last and only means of regulation is customs duties.

In the field of anti-dumping measures, the concepts of “legal subsidies” and “acceptable subsidies” were adopted, which include subsidies aimed at protecting environment and regional development, provided that their size is at least 3% of the total value of imports of goods or 1% of its total value. All others are classified as illegal and their use in foreign trade is prohibited.

Among the issues of economic regulation that indirectly affect foreign trade, the Uruguay Round included requirements for the minimum export of goods produced in joint ventures, the mandatory use of local components, and a number of others.

WTO. The Uruguay Round decided to create the WTO, which became the successor to the GATT and retained its main provisions. But the decisions of the round supplemented them with the tasks of ensuring free trade not only through liberalization, but also through the use of so-called links. The meaning of the links is that any government decisions to increase the tariff are made simultaneously (in conjunction) with the decision to liberalize the import of other goods. The WTO is not within the scope of the UN. This allows it to pursue its own independent policy and control over the activities of participating countries in compliance with adopted agreements.

GATS. The regulation of international trade in services has certain specifics. This is due to the fact that services, characterized by extreme diversity of forms and contents, do not form a single market that would have common features. But it has general trends that make it possible to regulate it at the global level, even taking into account new aspects in its development that are introduced by TNCs that dominate it and monopolize it. Currently, the global services market is regulated at four levels: international (global), industry (global), regional and national.

General regulation at the global level is carried out within the framework of the GATS, which came into force on January 1, 1995. Its regulation uses the same rules that were developed by the GATT in relation to goods: non-discrimination, national treatment, transparency (openness and uniformity of reading of laws), non-application of national laws to the detriment of foreign producers. However, the implementation of these rules is complicated by the peculiarities of services as goods: the absence of a material form for most of them, the coincidence of the time of production and consumption of services. The latter means that regulating the terms of trade in services means regulating the conditions for their production, and this in turn means regulating the conditions for investment in their production.

The GATS includes three parts: a framework agreement defining the general principles and rules for regulating trade in services; special agreements acceptable to individual service industries, and a list of obligations of national governments to eliminate restrictions in service industries. Thus, only one level, the regional level, falls outside the scope of GATS activities.

The GATS agreement is aimed at liberalizing trade in services and covers the following types: services in the field of telecommunications, finance and transport. Issues of export sales of films and television programs are excluded from the scope of its activities, which is due to the fears of individual states (European countries) of losing the identity of their national culture.

Industry regulation of international trade in services is also carried out in on a global scale, which is associated with their global production and consumption. Unlike the GATS, the organizations regulating such services are of a specialized nature. For example, civil aviation transportation is regulated by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), foreign tourism by the World Tourism Organization (WTO), and maritime transportation by the International Maritime Organization (IMO).

The regional level of international trade in services is regulated within the framework of economic integration groupings, in which restrictions on mutual trade in services are lifted (as, for example, in the EU) and restrictions on such trade with third countries can be introduced.

The national level of regulation concerns foreign trade in services of individual states. It is implemented through bilateral trade agreements, of which trade in services may be an integral part. A significant place in such agreements is given to the regulation of investments in the service sector.

Source - World economy: tutorial/ E.G.Guzhva, M.I.Lesnaya, A.V.Kondratiev, A.N.Egorov; SPbGASU. – St. Petersburg, 2009. – 116 p.